Consistent research shows that peer victimization predicts internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence, but the extent to which peer victimization and its harmful effects on mental health persists into young adulthood is unclear. The current study describes patterns of physical and relational victimization during and after high school, and examines concurrent and prospective associations between internalizing symptoms (depressive and anxious symptoms) and peer victimization (physical and relational) from adolescence to young adulthood (ages 12-27). Data were collected from the Victoria Healthy Youth Survey, a five-wave multicohort study conducted biennially between 2003 and 2011 (N = 662). Physical victimization was consistently low and stable over time. Relational victimization increased for males after high school. Both types of victimization were associated concurrently with internalizing symptoms across young adulthood for males and for females. Although sex differences were important, victimization in high school also predicted increases in internalizing problems over time.Popular opinion holds that "It gets better," suggesting that peer victimization and bullying decline after high school, but the course of peer victimization in the transition to young adulthood has rarely been empirically investigated. A meta-analysis of 29 studies (Ttofi, Farrington, Lösel, & Loeber, 2011) supports the long-term influence of peer victimization in childhood and adolescence (ages 8 to 16) on depression later in life (ages 10 to 64), but it did not distinguish young adults from adolescents or older adults and was unable to control for concurrent levels of victimization. Adults' retrospective accounts of chronic peer victimization in early childhood or adolescence were also associated with severe depressive symptoms in clinical samples (Gladstone, Parker, & Malhi, 2006;Lund et al., 2009). A recent prospective study also suggests that the effects of being victimized on mental health may persist into young adulthood. Gibb, Ferguson, and Horwood (2011) followed New Zealand youth from adolescence to age 30, using parent reports on a single-item to assess victimization (teased or bullied by other children) only in adolescence. The effects of victimization on internalizing disorders were not significant after accounting for other correlates of depression. Given the lack of longitudinal data that controls for concurrent reports of victimization, limited conclusions can be drawn from past studies about the changes in peer victimization or its effects on mental health across the transition to young adulthood. CIHR Author Manuscript CIHR Author Manuscript CIHR Author ManuscriptLongitudinal research on changes in peer victimization across this transition is also hampered by the lack of a psychometrically sound measure that can be used to assess physical and relational victimization in both adolescents and young adults. It is not known whether manifestations of victimization are similar across this transition. Physical...

We examine longitudinal relations among children's and parents' reports of peer victimization and their perceptions of school climate dimensions reflecting school interpersonal relationships (relationships among children and their teachers and peers, and of parents and principals) and values (fairness and equity of access to resources). Children were in Grades 3 and 4 at Time 1 (Mage = 9.32, SDage = .74; 49% boys). Bidirectional influences of school climate and reports of peer victimization were investigated in path models across grade (Time 1 to Time 2) and within a grade (Time 2 to Time 3). Child and parent reports of school climate dimensions showed considerable stability. Hypothesized reciprocal relationships between each of the school climate dimensions and peer victimization were significant. Child-reported frequency of parent involvement in school activities was associated with lower levels of peer victimization within a school year. Parent perceptions of involvement in school activities and the schools' connection with the community were unrelated to the children's reports of peer victimization. Children's negative cognitions or "worldviews" coupled with peer victimization may fuel problems with school connectedness, safety, and help seeking. Findings shed light on possible pathways for reducing peer victimization by leveraging specific aspects of the social climate within schools.

Past research demonstrates the promise of multicomponent programs in reducing peer victimization and bullying in older elementary and middle school children, however little research focuses on young children. The current study examines the effectiveness of the WITS Primary program on trajectories of victimization and social responsibility in children in Grades 1 to 3 (n 5 830). A quasi-experimental design is used to compare schools with well-established programs to nonprogram control schools, using three waves of data collected over 18 months. Children in the WITS program (n 5 422) showed more rapid declines in peer victimization over time compared with children in control schools (n 5 418). In addition, teachers of children in program schools reported higher average levels of social responsibility at each time point, compared with control schools. This study adds to support for the multicomponent program in reducing peer victimization among young children. Teachers' important roles in monitoring program implementation are discussed. C 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Victims of bullying-particularly those who are repeatedly victimized or who also behave aggressively toward their peers-are at increased risk for psychosocial and behavioral adjustment problems, including loneliness, low self-esteem, anxiety and depression, externalizing problems, peer rejection, and disengagement from school.

Substantial research illuminates many factors effecting the implementation of evidence-based mental health promotion programs in schools; however, research on how schools plan for sustaining their investments in these programs is limited. In this qualitative study, we elicited descriptions of opportunities and challenges for sustainability. We interviewed 24 individuals from schools involved in a longitudinal, qualitative research project that followed uptake and implementation of the evidence-based WITS Programs across 2 years (Leadbeater et al. 2012). WITS stands for Walk away, Ignore, Talk it out and Seek help and the online WITS Programs focus on preventing peer victimization ( www.witsprograms.ca ). Our findings suggest that sustainability planning in schools is not merely a next step following high quality implementation, but rather involves multiple ongoing processes that need to be anticipated and supported by school leadership and program champions and developers in order to realize investments in evidence-based programs.

Testing the theories that form the basis of prevention programs can enhance our understanding of behavioral change and inform the development, coordination, and adaptation of prevention programs. However, theories of change showing the linkages from intervention program components to risk or protective factors to desired outcomes across time are rarely specified or tested. In this 2-year longitudinal study, we test the theory that increases in two protective factors (i.e., children's prosocial leadership and their teachers' expectations of social responsibility) targeted by the WITS Programs (Walk Away, Ignore, Talk it Out, and Seek Help) would be associated with declines in peer victimization, aggression, and emotional problems. Participants included Canadian students, in grades 1-4 at baseline (n = 1329) and their parents and teachers. Consistent with our theory of change, variability in program implementation (adherence and integration) and in children's use of program skills (child responsiveness) are related to increases in both protective factors. Increases in these protective factors are associated with subsequent declines in children's aggression, victimization, and emotional problems. We discuss how enhancement of these protective factors may operate to improve child outcomes and the need for theory-based research to refine and improve the effectiveness of intervention strategies and to improve program scale-up.