We describe an enzyme-linked two-site immunoassay for quantitation of intact insulin in human serum and plasma. The method uses two murine monoclonal antibodies that bind to two different epitopes on the insulin molecule. The immunoassay is specific. Human proinsulin is not bound by the antibodies, and the binding of partially processed proinsulin intermediates is believed to be of minor clinical importance. The relative response of human, bovine, and porcine insulin is 1, 1, and 3, respectively. The assay is sensitive (detection limit 5 pmol/L), accurate (101% recovery with 50 pmol/L insulin added to samples, 95% with 100 pmol/L, and 89% with 300 pmol/L), and fast (results within 3 h), and has a high analytical capacity (done in microtiter plates). The working assay range selected is 5-600 pmol/L, corresponding to a clinically useful range. Because of its specificity, this two-site immunoassay gives results that are lower than those obtained by using a competitive radioimmunoassay, both in normal individuals and in non-insulin-dependent diabetics.

Suspecting that paracrine inhibition might influence neuronal regulation of the endocrine L cells, we studied the role of somatostatin (SS) in the regulation of the secretion of the proglucagon-derived hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 and -2 (GLP-1 and GLP-2). This was examined using the isolated perfused porcine ileum stimulated with acetylcholine (ACh, 10(-6) M), neuromedin C (NC, 10(-8) M), and electrical nerve stimulation (NS) with or without alpha-adrenergic blockade (phentolamine 10(-5) M), and perfusion with a high-affinity monoclonal antibody against SS. ACh and NC significantly increased GLP secretion, whereas NS had little effect. SS immunoneutralization increased GLP secretion eight- to ninefold but had little influence on the GLP responses to ACh, NC, and NS. Basal SS secretion (mainly SS28) was unaffected by NS alone. Phentolamine + NS and NC abstract strongly stimulated release mainly of SS14, whereas ACh had little effect. Infused intravascularly, SS14 weakly and SS28 strongly inhibited GLP secretion. We conclude that GLP secretion is tonically inhibited by a local release of SS28 from epithelial paracrine cells, whereas SS14, supposedly derived from enteric neurons, only weakly influences GLP secretion.

Aims/hypothesis: We investigated whether random proinsulin levels and proinsulin:C-peptide ratio (PI:C) complement immune and genetic markers for identifying relatives at high risk of type 1 diabetes. Materials and methods: During an initial sampling, random glycaemia, proinsulin, PI:C and HLA DQ genotype were determined in 561 non-diabetic first-degree relatives who had been positive for islet autoantibodies on one or more occasions and in 561 age-and sex-matched persistently antibodynegative relatives. Results: During follow-up (median 62 months), 46 relatives with antibodies at entry developed type 1 diabetes. At baseline, antibody-positive relatives (n=338) had higher PI:C values (p<0.001) than antibodynegative subjects with (n=223) or subjects without (n=561) later seroconversion. Proinsulin and PI:C were graded according to risk of diabetes as expressed by positivity for (multiple) antibodies or IA-2 antibodies, especially in persons carrying the high-risk HLA DQ2/DQ8 genotype and in prediabetic relatives. In the presence of multiple or IA-2 antibodies, a PI:C ratio exceeding percentile 66 of all antibody-negative relatives at entry (n=784) conferred a 5-year diabetes risk of 50% and 68%, respectively (p<0.001 vs 13% for same antibody status with PI:C

The role of glucagon in the regulation of blood glucose in fed and fasted anesthetized rats was studied by injecting intravenously 4 ml/kg of a high-capacity (40 nmol/ml) high-affinity (0.6 x 10(11) mol/l) monoclonal glucagon antibody. Blood glucose was lowered by the antibody by 2 mmol/l in fed rats but remained unchanged in 10- and 48-h-fasted rats. Antibody injection significantly reduced plasma insulin in both fed and 10-h-fasted rats. In 10-h-fasted rats, propranolol injection decreased blood glucose by 0.6 mmol/l, and combined with antibody administration, a decrease by 1.1 mmol/l was observed. Blood glucose was never < 3.3 mmol/l. Thus glucagon is partly responsible for maintenance of euglycemia in fed rats, whereas during fasting it plays a limited role. However, immunoneutralization of glucagon reduces insulin secretion irrespective of blood glucose. Additional mechanisms seem to be responsible for the maintenance of blood glucose in the fasting state when glucagon and the sympathoadrenergic system are blocked.

SummaryThe role of glucagon in diabetic hyperglycaemia has been a matter of controversy because of difficulties in the production of selective glucagon deficiency. We developed a high-capacity (40 nmol/ ml), high-affinity (0.6 9 10111/mol) monoclonal glucagon antibody (Glu-mAb) and gave i.v. injections (4 ml/kg) to rats in order to study the effect of selective glucagon deficiency on blood glucose. Controls received a mAb against trinitrophenyl. Glu-mAb completely abolished the hyperglycaemic effect of 2.86nmol/kg glucagon in normal rats (p<0.05, n = 6). In moderately hyperglycaemic rats injected with streptozotocin as neonates (N-STZ), Glu-mAb abolished a postprandial increase in blood glucose (from 11.2 + 0.7 mmol/1 to 17.3 + 1.8 mmol/1 in controls vs 10.5 +_ 0.9 mmol/1 to 9.3 + 1.0 mmol/1; crossover: n = 6, p < 0.05). No significant effect of GlumAb treatment was observed in more hyperglycaemic N-STZ rats (cross-over, n = 4) and in severely hyperglycaemic rats injected with STZ as adults (n = 6), but after insulin treatment of the latter, at doses partially restoring blood glucose levels (12.7 +_ 4.3 mmol/1), Glu-mAb administration almost normalized blood glucose (maximal difference: 6.0 + 3.8 mmol/1; cross-over: n = 5, p < 0.05). In conclusion, our results provide strong additional evidence for the hypothesis that glucagon is involved in the pathogenesis of diabetes. The hormone plays an important role in the development of STZ-diabetic hyperglycaemia, but glucagon neutralization only leads to normoglycaemia in the presence of insulin. [Diabetologia (1994) 37: 985-993] Key words Immunoneutralization, monoclonal antibody, glucagon, insulin, streptozotocin, rat.Diabetic hyperglycaemia is generally believed to be a bihormonal disorder where absolute or relative lack of insulin and excess of glucagon cause decreased peripheral glucose uptake and increased hepatic glu-