Single-dose administration of beta-adrenoceptor agonists produces bronchodilation and inhibits airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), and is the standard treatment for the acute relief of asthma. However, chronic repetitive administration of beta-adrenoceptor agonists may increase AHR, airway inflammation, and risk of death. Based upon the paradigm shift that occurred with the use of betablockers in congestive heart failure, we previously determined that chronic administration of beta-blockers decreased AHR in a murine model of asthma. To elucidate the mechanisms for the beneficial effects of beta-blockers, we examined the effects of chronic administration of several beta-adrenoceptor ligands in a murine model of allergic asthma. Administration of beta-blockers resulted in a reduction in total cell counts, eosinophils, and the cytokines IL-13, IL-10, IL-5, and TGF-b1 in bronchoalveolar lavage, and attenuated epithelial mucin content and morphologic changes. The differences in mucin content also occurred if the beta-blockers were administered only during the ovalbumin challenge phase, but administration of beta-blockers for 7 days was not as effective as administration for 28 days. These results indicate that in a murine model of asthma, chronic administration of beta-blockers reduces inflammation and mucous metaplasia, cardinal features of asthma that may contribute to airflow obstruction and AHR. Similar to heart failure, our results provide a second disease model in which beta-blockers producing an acutely detrimental effect may provide a therapeutically beneficial effect with chronic administration.

Chronic regular use of ␤2-adrenoceptor (␤2-AR) agonists in asthma is associated with a loss of disease control and increased risk of death. Conversely, we have found that administration of ␤2-AR inverse agonists results in attenuation of the asthma phenotype in an allergen-driven murine model. Besides antagonizing agonistinduced signaling and reducing signaling by empty receptors, ␤-AR inverse agonists can also activate signaling by novel pathways. To determine the mechanism of the ␤-AR inverse agonists, we compared the asthma phenotype in ␤2-AR-null and wild-type mice. Antigen challenge of ␤2-AR-null mice produced results similar to what was observed with chronic ␤2-AR inverse agonist treatment, namely, reductions in mucous metaplasia, airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), and inflammatory cells in the lungs. These results indicate that the effects of ␤2-AR inverse agonists are caused by inhibition of ␤2-AR signaling rather than by the induction of novel signaling pathways. Chronic administration of alprenolol, a ␤-blocker without inverse agonist properties, did not attenuate the asthma phenotype, suggesting that it is signaling by empty receptors, rather than agonist-induced ␤2-AR signaling, that supports the asthma phenotype. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that, in a murine model of asthma, ␤2-AR signaling is required for the full development of three cardinal features of asthma: mucous metaplasia, AHR, and the presence of inflammatory cells in the lungs.airway hyperresponsiveness ͉ ␤-blocker ͉ inverse agonist ͉ mucous metaplasia ͉ inflammation

Aim Our aim is to investigate the molecular mechanism of regulation of gene expression of drug metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) and transporters in diet-induced obesity. Main methods Adult male CD1 mice were fed diet containing 60% kcal fat (HFD) or 10% kcal fat (LFD) for 14 weeks. RNA levels of hepatic DMEs, transporters and their regulatory nuclear receptors (NRs) were analyzed by real-time PCR. Activation of cell-signaling components (JNK and NF-κB) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNFα) were measured in the liver. Finally, the pharmacodynamics of drugs metabolized by DMEs was measured to determine the clinical relevance of our findings. Key findings RNA levels of the hepatic phase I (Cyp3a11, Cyp2b10, Cyp2a4) and phase II (Ugt1a1, Sult1a1, Sultn) enzymes were reduced ~30-60% in HFD compared to LFD mice. RNA levels of Cyp2e1, Cyp1a2 and the drug transporters, multidrug resistance proteins, (Mrp)2, Mrp3 and multidrug resistant gene (Mdr)1b were unaltered in HFD mice. Gene expression of the NRs, PXR and CAR and nuclear protein levels of RXRα was reduced in HFD mice. Cytokines, JNK and NF-κB were induced in HFD mice. Thus reduction in hepatic gene expression in obesity may be modulated by cross-talk between NRs and inflammation-induced cell-signaling. Sleep time of Midazolam (Cyp3a substrate) was prolonged in HFD mice, while Zoxazolamine (Cyp1a2 and Cyp2e1 substrate)-induced sleep time was unaltered. Significance This study demonstrates that gene-specific reductions in DMEs can affect specific drugs metabolized by these enzymes, thus providing a rationale to monitor the effectiveness of drug therapy in obese individuals.

The mostly widely used bronchodilators in asthma therapy are β-adrenoreceptor (βAR) agonists, but their chronic use causes paradoxical adverse effects. We have previously determined that βAR activation is required for expression of the asthma phenotype in mice, but the cell types involved are unknown. We now demonstrate that βAR signaling in the airway epithelium is sufficient to mediate key features of the asthmatic responses to IL-13 in murine models. Our data show that inhibition of βAR signaling with an aerosolized antagonist attenuates airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), eosinophilic inflammation, and mucus-production responses to IL-13, whereas treatment with an aerosolized agonist worsens these phenotypes, suggesting that βAR signaling on resident lung cells modulates the asthma phenotype. Labeling with a fluorescent βAR ligand shows the receptors are highly expressed in airway epithelium. In βAR mice, transgenic expression of βARs only in airway epithelium is sufficient to rescue IL-13-induced AHR, inflammation, and mucus production, and transgenic overexpression in WT mice exacerbates these phenotypes. Knockout of β-arrestin-2 (βarr-2) attenuates the asthma phenotype as in βAR mice. In contrast to eosinophilic inflammation, neutrophilic inflammation was not promoted by βAR signaling. Together, these results suggest βARs on airway epithelial cells promote the asthma phenotype and that the proinflammatory pathway downstream of the βAR involves βarr-2. These results identify βAR signaling in the airway epithelium as capable of controlling integrated responses to IL-13 and affecting the function of other cell types such as airway smooth muscle cells.

Mucus hypersecretion by airway epithelium is a hallmark of inflammation in allergic asthma and results in airway narrowing and obstruction. Others have shown that administration a TH2 cytokine, IL-13 is sufficient to cause mucus hypersecretion in vivo and in vitro. Asthma therapy often utilizes β2-adrenoceptor (β2AR) agonists, which are effective acutely as bronchodilators, however chronic use may lead to a worsening of asthma symptoms. In this study, we asked whether β2AR signaling in normal human airway epithelial (NHBE) cells affected mucin production in response to IL-13. This cytokine markedly increased mucin production, but only in the presence of epinephrine. Mucin production was blocked by ICI-118,551, a preferential β2AR antagonist, but not by CGP-20712A, a preferential β1AR antagonist. Constitutive β2AR activity was not sufficient for IL-13 induced mucin production and β-agonist-induced signaling is required. A clinically important long-acting β-agonist, formoterol, was as effective as epinephrine in potentiating IL-13 induced MUC5AC transcription. IL-13 induced mucin production in the presence of epinephrine was significantly reduced by treatment with selective inhibitors of ERK1/2 (FR180204), p38 (SB203580) and JNK (SP600125). Replacement of epinephrine with forskolin + IBMX resulted in a marked increase in mucin production in NHBE cells in response to IL-13, and treatment with the inhibitory cAMP analogue Rp-cAMPS decreased mucin levels induced by epinephrine + IL-13. Our findings suggest that β2AR signaling is required for mucin production in response to IL-13, and that mitogen activated protein kinases and cAMP are necessary for this effect. These data lend support to the notion that β2AR-agonists may contribute to asthma exacerbations by increasing mucin production via activation of β2ARs on epithelial cells.