Complexes consisting of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and their regulatory subunits (the cyclins) control the progression of normal mammalian cells through the cell cycle. However, during malignant transformation this regulatory apparatus malfunctions, allowing cells to undergo unchecked proliferation. In many cases, the high mitotic potential of malignant cells is due to the constitutive activation of CDK-cyclin complexes, facilitated by the inactivation of cellular CDK inhibitors, such as p16(INK4A) or p27(Kip1), and the loss of functional tumor suppressors, such as the p53 and pRb proteins. It has recently been suggested that pharmacological intervention based on remedying the deficiency or loss of activity of these negative regulators of the cell cycle could be a very effective therapeutic option in the treatment of cancer. Multiple CDK inhibitors have been synthesized over the last two decades, spanning at least five classes of compounds. While these inhibitors can be classified on the basis of their chemical structure, it may be more interesting to categorize them according to their pharmacological nature, as broad-spectrum unspecific, pan-specific, or very selective antagonists. This review offers a critical assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of both pan-specific and highly selective CDK inhibitors in therapy.
Background: Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) are crucial targets in cancer therapy. Combined inhibition of both targets yielded synergistic effects in vitro and in vivo in several cancer entities. However, the impact of EGFR and mTOR expression and combined inhibition in neuroendocrine lung tumors other than small-cell lung cancer remains unclear. Material and Methods: Expression and activation of EGFR/AKT/mTOR pathway constituents were investigated in typical and atypical bronchial carcinoid (AC) tumors and large-cell neuroendocrine lung carcinomas (LCNEC) by immunohistochemistry in 110 tumor samples, and correlated with clinicopathological parameters and patient survival. Cytotoxicity of mTOR inhibitor everolimus and EGFR inhibitor erlotinib alone and in combination was assessed using growth inhibition assay in NCI-H720 AC and SHP-77 LCNEC cells. Cell cycle phase distribution was determined by FACS. Apoptosis-associated activation of caspase-3/7 was measured by Caspase-Glo® assay. Activity status of EGFR and mTOR pathway components was analyzed by immunoblotting. Results: Activation of the EGFR/AKT/mTOR axis could be demonstrated in all entities and was significantly increased in higher grade tumors. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy correlated significantly with p-AKT expression and p-ERK loss. Erlotinib combined with everolimus exerted synergistic combination effects in AC and LCNEC cells by induction of apoptosis, while cell cycle phase distribution remained unaffected. These effects could be explained by synergistic downregulation of phospho-mTOR, phospho-p70S6 kinase and phospho-AKT expression by everolimus and erlotinib. Conclusions: Our study indicates that EGFR and mTOR are clinically important targets in bronchial neuroendocrine tumors, and further in vivo and clinical exploration of combined inhibition is warranted.
Exposure of asynchronously growing human HeLa cervical carcinoma cells to roscovitine (ROSC), a selective cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) inhibitor, arrests their progression at the transition between G(2)/M and/or induces apoptosis. The outcome depends on the ROSC concentration. At higher dose ROSC represses HPV-encoded E7 oncoprotein and initiates caspase-dependent apoptosis. Inhibition of the site-specific phosphorylation of survivin and Bad, occurring at high-dose ROSC treatment, precedes the onset of apoptosis and seems to be a prerequisite for cell death. Considering the fact that in HeLa cells the G(1)/S restriction checkpoint is abolished by E7, we addressed the question whether the inhibition of CDKs by pharmacological inhibitors in synchronized cells would be able to block the cell-cycle in G(1) phase. For this purpose, we attempted to synchronize cells by serum withdrawal or by blocking of the mitotic apparatus using nocodazole. Unlike human MCF-7 cells, HeLa cells do not undergo G(1) block after serum starvation, but respond with a slight increase of the ratio of G(1) population. Exposure of G(1)-enriched HeLa cells to ROSC after re-feeding does not block their cell-cycle progression at G(1)-phase, but increases the ratio of S- and G(2)-phase, thereby mimicking the effect on asynchronously growing cells. A quite different impact is observed after treatment of HeLa cells released from mitotic block. ROSC prevents their cell cycle progression and cells transiently accumulate in G(1)-phase. These results show that inhibition of CDKs by ROSC in cells lacking the G(1)/S restriction checkpoint has different outcomes depending on the cell-cycle status prior to the onset of treatment.
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