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Kongsfjorden‐Krossfjorden and the adjacent West Spitsbergen Shelf meet at the common mouth of the two fjord arms. This paper presents our most up‐to‐date information about the physical environment of this fjord system and identifies important gaps in knowledge. Particular attention is given to the steep physical gradients along the main fjord axis, as well as to seasonal environmental changes. Physical processes on different scales control the large‐scale circulation and small‐scale (irreversible) mixing of water and its constituents. It is shown that, in addition to the tide, run‐off (glacier ablation, snowmelt, summer rainfall and ice calving) and local winds are the main driving forces acting on the upper water masses in the fjord system. The tide is dominated by the semi‐diurnal component and the freshwater supply shows a marked seasonal variation pattern and also varies interannually. The wind conditions are characterized by prevailing katabatic winds, which at times are strengthened by the geostrophic wind field over Svalbard. Rotational dynamics have a considerable influence on the circulation patterns within the fjord system and give rise to a strong interaction between the fjord arms. Such dynamics are also the main reason why variations in the shelf water density field, caused by remote forces (tide and coastal winds), propagate as a Kelvin wave into the fjord system. This exchange affects mainly the intermediate and deep water, which is also affected by vertical convection processes driven by cooling of the surface and brine release during ice formation in the inner reaches of the fjord arms. Further aspects covered by this paper include the geological and geomorphological characteristics of the Kongsfjorden area, climate and meteorology, the influence of glaciers, freshwater supply, sea ice conditions, sedimentation processes as well as underwater radiation conditions. The fjord system is assumed to be vulnerable to possible climate changes, and thus is very suitable as a site for the demonstration and investigation of phenomena related to climate change.

In the Jutulgryta area of Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, subsurface melting of the ice sheet has been observed. The melting takes place during the summer months in blue-ice areas under conditions of below-freezing air and surface temperatures. Adjacent snow-covered regions, having the same meteorological and climatic conditions, experience little or no subsurface melting. To help explain and understand the observed melt-rate differences in the blue-ice and snow-covered areas, a physically based numerical model of the coupled atmosphere, radiation, snow and blue-ice system has been developed. The model comprises a heat-transfer equation which includes a spectrally dependent solar-radiation source term. The penetration of radiation into the snow and blue ice depends on the solar-radiation spectrum, the surface albedo and the snow and blue-ice grain-sizes and densities. In addition, the model uses a complete surface energy balance to define the surface boundary conditions. It is run over the full annual cycle, simulating temperature profiles and melting and freezing quantities throughout the summer and winter seasons. The model is driven and validated using field observations collected during the Norwegian Antarctic Research Expedition (NARE) 1996–97. The simulations suggest that the observed differences between subsurface snow and blue-ice melting can be explained largely by radiative and heat-transfer interactions resulting from differences in albedo, grain-size and density between the two mediums.

The resources component of the Arctic Freshwater Synthesis focuses on the potential impact of future climate and change on water resources in the Arctic and how Arctic infrastructure and exploration and production of natural resources are affected. Freshwater availability may increase in the Arctic in the future in response to an increase in middle-and high-latitude annual precipitation. Changes in type of precipitation, its seasonal distribution, timing, and rate of snowmelt represent a challenge to municipalities and transportation networks subjected to flooding and droughts and to current industries and future industrial development. A reliable well-distributed water source is essential for all infrastructures, industrial development, and other sectorial uses in the Arctic. Fluctuations in water supply and seasonal precipitation and temperature may represent not only opportunities but also threats to water quantity and quality for Arctic communities and industrial use. The impact of future climate change is varying depending on the geographical area and the current state of infrastructure and industrial development. This paper provides a summary of our current knowledge related to the system function and key physical processes affecting northern water resources, industry, and other sectorial infrastructure.Information and data from the other components of AFS are used, in order to assess the impacts and consequences on infrastructure and anthropogenic systems.