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Nucleotide excision repair (NER) requires the coordinated sequential assembly and actions of the involved proteins at sites of DNA damage. Following damage recognition, dual incision 5' to the lesion by ERCC1-XPF and 3' to the lesion by XPG leads to the removal of a lesion-containing oligonucleotide of about 30 nucleotides. The resulting single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) gap on the undamaged strand is filled in by DNA repair synthesis. Here, we have asked how dual incision and repair synthesis are coordinated in human cells to avoid the exposure of potentially harmful ssDNA intermediates. Using catalytically inactive mutants of ERCC1-XPF and XPG, we show that the 5' incision by ERCC1-XPF precedes the 3' incision by XPG and that the initiation of repair synthesis does not require the catalytic activity of XPG. We propose that a defined order of dual incision and repair synthesis exists in human cells in the form of a 'cut-patch-cut-patch' mechanism. This mechanism may aid the smooth progression through the NER pathway and contribute to genome integrity.

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is a genome caretaker mechanism responsible for removing helix-distorting DNA lesions, most notably ultraviolet photodimers. Inherited defects in NER result in profound photosensitivity and the cancer-prone syndrome xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) or two progeroid syndromes: Cockayne and trichothiodystrophy syndromes. The heterodimer ERCC1-XPF is one of two endonucleases required for NER. Mutations in XPF are associated with mild XP and rarely with progeria. Mutations in ERCC1 have not been reported. Here, we describe the first case of human inherited ERCC1 deficiency. Patient cells showed moderate hypersensitivity to ultraviolet rays and mitomycin C, yet the clinical features were very severe and, unexpectedly, were compatible with a diagnosis of cerebro-oculo-facio-skeletal syndrome. This discovery represents a novel complementation group of patients with defective NER. Further, the clinical severity, coupled with a relatively mild repair defect, suggests novel functions for ERCC1.

Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is caused by defects in the nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway. NER removes helix-distorting DNA lesions, such as UV–induced photodimers, from the genome. Patients suffering from XP exhibit exquisite sun sensitivity, high incidence of skin cancer, and in some cases neurodegeneration. The severity of XP varies tremendously depending upon which NER gene is mutated and how severely the mutation affects DNA repair capacity. XPF-ERCC1 is a structure-specific endonuclease essential for incising the damaged strand of DNA in NER. Missense mutations in XPF can result not only in XP, but also XPF-ERCC1 (XFE) progeroid syndrome, a disease of accelerated aging. In an attempt to determine how mutations in XPF can lead to such diverse symptoms, the effects of a progeria-causing mutation (XPFR153P) were compared to an XP–causing mutation (XPFR799W) in vitro and in vivo. Recombinant XPF harboring either mutation was purified in a complex with ERCC1 and tested for its ability to incise a stem-loop structure in vitro. Both mutant complexes nicked the substrate indicating that neither mutation obviates catalytic activity of the nuclease. Surprisingly, differential immunostaining and fractionation of cells from an XFE progeroid patient revealed that XPF-ERCC1 is abundant in the cytoplasm. This was confirmed by fluorescent detection of XPFR153P-YFP expressed in Xpf mutant cells. In addition, microinjection of XPFR153P-ERCC1 into the nucleus of XPF–deficient human cells restored nucleotide excision repair of UV–induced DNA damage. Intriguingly, in all XPF mutant cell lines examined, XPF-ERCC1 was detected in the cytoplasm of a fraction of cells. This demonstrates that at least part of the DNA repair defect and symptoms associated with mutations in XPF are due to mislocalization of XPF-ERCC1 into the cytoplasm of cells, likely due to protein misfolding. Analysis of these patient cells therefore reveals a novel mechanism to potentially regulate a cell's capacity for DNA repair: by manipulating nuclear localization of XPF-ERCC1.

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