It has long been recognized that body fat distribution and regional adiposity play a major role in the control of metabolic homeostasis. However, the ability to study and compare the cell autonomous regulation and response of adipocytes from different fat depots has been hampered by the difficulty of inducing preadipocytes isolated from the visceral depot to differentiate into mature adipocytes in culture. Here, we present an easily created 3-dimensional (3D) culture system that can be used to differentiate preadipocytes from the visceral depot as robustly as those from the sc depot. The cells differentiated in these 3D collagen gels are mature adipocytes that retain depot-specific characteristics, as determined by imaging, gene expression, and functional assays. This 3D culture system therefore allows for study of the development and function of adipocytes from both depots in vitro and may ultimately lead to a greater understanding of site-specific functional differences of adipose tissues to metabolic dysregulation.
Purpose: To understand medication use and patient burden for treatment of bacterial keratitis (BK). Methods: A retrospective study was conducted examining medical records of adult patients with BK in an academic cornea practice. Data collected included medications used in the treatment of BK, dosing of medications, and the number and total duration of clinical encounters. Costs of medications were estimated using the average wholesale pharmacy price. Linear regression analysis was used to investigate associations of medication use with patient demographics and corneal culture results and reported with beta estimates (β) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Results: Forty-eight patients with BK (56% female) were studied. Patients were treated for a median of 54 days with 10 visits, 5 unique medications, 587 drops, and 7 prescriptions. The estimated median medication cost was $933 (interquartile range: $457–$1422) US dollars. Positive bacterial growth was significantly associated with more visits (β: 6.16, 95% CI: 1.75–10.6, P = 0.007), more days of treatment (β: 86.8, 95% CI: 10.8–163, P = 0.026), more prescribed medications (β: 2.86, 95% CI: 1.04–4.67, P = 0.003), and more doses of medications (β: 796, 95% CI: 818–1412, P = 0.012) compared with patients who did not undergo corneal scraping. Patients were prescribed 132 more drops of medication for every 10 years of older age (β: 132, 95% CI: 18.2–246, P = 0.024). Sex and income were not associated with medication burden or treatment length. Conclusions: Older patients and those with positive cultures incur the most medication burden in treatment of BK. Providers should be aware of medication usage and cost burden as it may affect compliance with treatment.
Purpose: To investigate the burden of procedures, visits, and procedure costs in the management of microbial keratitis (MK). Methods: Medical records of patients from an academic hospital outpatient facility between December 2013 and May 2018 were retrospectively reviewed. Patients were included if they were older than the age of 18 years, recruited for study of likely MK, and not concurrently undergoing treatment for other acute eye conditions. For procedural costs, Medicare data for billing were obtained using the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services Physician Fee Lookup tool. Results: A total of 68 patients were included for analysis. Patients were on average 51.3 years (SD = 19.5), 55.9% women (n = 38), and 89.7% White (n = 61). Per person, the average number of procedures was 2.9 (SD = 4.2). The average number of visits was 13.9 (SD = 9.2) over an average of 26.9 weeks (SD = 24.3). Age (P < 0.0001), positive Gram stain (P = 0.03), and mixed Gram stain (P = 0.002) were positively associated with the number of procedures. Age (P = 0.0003), fungal keratitis (P = 0.02), and mixed Gram stain (P = 0.01) were positively associated with the number of visits. Race was inversely associated with the number of procedures (P = 0.045) and visits (0.03). Patients with bacterial keratitis were more likely to have amniotic membrane grafts (P = 0.01) and tarsorrhaphies (P = 0.03) than fungal patients. Across all procedures performed for the management of MK, the mean cost per patient was $1788.7 (SD = $3324.62). Conclusions: Patients incur many procedural costs and attend many visits during the management of MK. These findings emphasize the importance of patient–provider communication for frequent follow-up care and the potential need to perform procedures for disease management.
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