Paleo-Eskimos were the first people to settle vast regions of the American Arctic around 5,000 years ago, and were subsequently joined and largely displaced around 1,000 years ago by ancestors of present-day Inuit and Yup’ik1–3. The genetic relationship between Paleo-Eskimos and Native American, Inuit, Yup’ik and Aleut populations remains uncertain4–7. Here we present new genomic data for 48 ancient individuals from Chukotka, East Siberia, the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the Canadian Arctic. We co-analyze these data with new data from present-day Alaskan Iñupiat and West Siberian populations and published genomes. Employing new methods based on rare allele and haplotype sharing as well as established methods4,8–10, we show that Paleo-Eskimo-related ancestry is ubiquitous among populations speaking Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut languages. We develop a comprehensive model for the Holocene peopling events of Chukotka and North America, and show that several key migrations connected to the origin of the Na-Dene peoples, the peopling of the Aleutian Islands, and the spread of Yup’ik and Inuit across the Arctic region are genetically linked to a single Siberian source related to Paleo-Eskimos.

Variable kinship patterns in Neolithic Anatolia revealed by ancient genomes Highlights d Genetic kinship estimated from co-buried individuals' genomes in Neolithic Anatolia d Close relatives are common among co-burials in As xıklı and Boncuklu d Many unrelated infants found buried in the same building in Ç atalhö yü k and Barcın d Neolithic societies in Southwest Asia may have held diverse concepts of kinship

The great ethnolinguistic diversity found today in mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) reflects multiple migration waves of people in the past. Maritime trading between MSEA and India was established at the latest 300 BCE, and the formation of early states in Southeast Asia during the first millennium CE was strongly influenced by Indian culture, a cultural influence that is still prominent today. Several ancient Indian-influenced states were located in present-day Thailand, and various populations in the country are likely to be descendants of people from those states. To systematically explore Indian genetic heritage in MSEA populations, we generated genome-wide SNP data (using the Affymetrix Human Origins array) for 119 present-day individuals belonging to 10 ethnic groups from Thailand and co-analyzed them with published data using PCA, ADMIXTURE, and methods relying on f-statistics and on autosomal haplotypes. We found low levels of South Asian admixture in various MSEA populations for whom there is evidence of historical connections with the ancient Indian-influenced states but failed to find this genetic component in present-day hunter-gatherer groups and relatively isolated groups from the highlands of Northern Thailand. The results suggest that migration of Indian populations to MSEA may have been responsible for the spread of Indian culture in the region. Our results also support close genetic affinity between Kra-Dai-speaking (also known as Tai-Kadai) and Austronesian-speaking populations, which fits a linguistic hypothesis suggesting cladality of the two language families.

The Kets, an ethnic group in the Yenisei River basin, Russia, are considered the last nomadic hunter-gatherers of Siberia, and Ket language has no transparent affiliation with any language family. We investigated connections between the Kets and Siberian and North American populations, with emphasis on the Mal’ta and Paleo-Eskimo ancient genomes, using original data from 46 unrelated samples of Kets and 42 samples of their neighboring ethnic groups (Uralic-speaking Nganasans, Enets, and Selkups). We genotyped over 130,000 autosomal SNPs, identified mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups, and performed high-coverage genome sequencing of two Ket individuals. We established that Nganasans, Kets, Selkups, and Yukaghirs form a cluster of populations most closely related to Paleo-Eskimos in Siberia (not considering indigenous populations of Chukotka and Kamchatka). Kets are closely related to modern Selkups and to some Bronze and Iron Age populations of the Altai region, with all these groups sharing a high degree of Mal’ta ancestry. Implications of these findings for the linguistic hypothesis uniting Ket and Na-Dene languages into a language macrofamily are discussed.

The great ethnolinguistic diversity found today in mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) reflects multiple migration waves of people in the past. Deeply divergent East Eurasian hunter-gatherers were the first anatomically modern human population known to migrate to the region. Agriculturalists from South China migrated to the region and admixed with the local hunter-gatherers during the Neolithic period. During the Bronze and Iron Ages, the genetic makeup of people in MSEA changed again, indicating an additional influx of populations from South China. Maritime trading between MSEA and India was established at the latest 300 BCE, and the formation of early states in Southeast Asia during the first millennium CE was strongly influenced by Indian culture, and this cultural influence is still prominent today. Several ancient Indian-influenced states were located in present-day Thailand, and various populations in the country are likely to be descendants of people from those states. To systematically explore Indian genetic heritage in MSEA, we generated genome-wide SNP data (the HumanOrigins array) for 119 present-day individuals belonging to 10 ethnic groups from Thailand and co-analyzed them with published data from MSEA using the PCA, ADMIXTURE, f3-statistics, qpAdm, and qpGraph methods. We found South Asian low-level admixture in various MSEA populations which are probably descendants of people from the ancient Indian-influenced states, but failed to find a South Asian genetic component in present-day hunter-gatherer groups and relatively isolated groups from highlands in Northern Thailand. Our results also support close genetic affinity between Kra-Dai-speaking (also known as Tai-Kadai) and Austronesian-speaking populations, which fits a linguistic hypothesis suggesting cladality of the two language families.Author SummaryMainland Southeast Asia is a region with great ethnolinguistic diversity and complex population history. We studied genetic population history of present-day mainland Southeast Asian populations using genome-wide SNP data (the HumanOrigins array). We generated new data for 10 present-day ethnic groups from Thailand, which we further combined with published data from mainland and island Southeast Asians and worldwide populations. We revealed South Asian genetic admixture in various mainland Southeast Asian ethnic groups which are highly influenced by Indian culture, but failed to find it in groups who remained culturally isolated until recently. Our finding suggests that a massive migration of Indian people in the past was responsible for the spread of Indian culture in mainland Southeast Asia. We also found support for a close genetic affinity between Kra-Dai- and Austronesianspeaking populations, which fits a linguistic hypothesis suggesting cladality of the two language families.