Over the past decade, it has become clear that lipid homeostasis is central to cellular metabolism. Lipids are particularly abundant in the central nervous system (CNS) where they modulate membrane fluidity, electric signal transduction, and synaptic stabilization. Abnormal lipid profiles reported in Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and traumatic brain injury (TBI), are further support for the importance of lipid metablism in the nervous system. Cardiolipin (CL), a mitochondria-exclusive phospholipid, has recently emerged as a focus of neurodegenerative disease research. Aberrant CL content, structure, and localization are linked to impaired neurogenesis and neuronal dysfunction, contributing to aging and the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD and PD. Furthermore, the highly tissue-specific acyl chain composition of CL confers it significant potential as a biomarker to diagnose and monitor the progression in several neurological diseases. CL also represents a potential target for pharmacological strategies aimed at treating neurodegeneration. Given the equipoise that currently exists between CL metabolism, mitochondrial function, and neurological disease, we review the role of CL in nervous system physiology and monogenic and neurodegenerative disease pathophysiology, in addition to its potential application as a biomarker and pharmacological target. Lipids and the Central Nervous SystemThe central nervous system (CNS) is rich in lipids, which account for approximately 50% of the total brain dry weight [1]. They are primarily localized to biological membranes, where they sustain CNS architecture and function. Sphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, and cholesterol are the predominant species and participate in a broad range of physiological functions, including cellular signaling (e.g., myelination to enable neuronal communication and nerve conduction, and lipid raft formation), energy balance, blood-brain barrier formation, and inflammatory responses [2]. It is therefore unsurprising that dysregulation of the CNS lipidome is associated with a broad spectrum of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) [2].Neuronal cellular functions have an extremely high metabolic rate, with the brain consuming up to 20% of the total body energy [2]. To fulfil this extensive energy requirement, neurons rely on glucose metabolism and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Indeed, mitochondria function as sophisticated energy sensors that rapidly modulate their morphology and activity according to cellular energy demands. In addition to energy metabolism, mitochondria also participate in numerous biochemical and signaling pathways that are crucial for brain homeostasis, including cell death signaling, generation of free radical species, and lipid synthesis [3]. As a consequence of their bacterial ancestry, mitochondria have distinctive features that include multiple copies of a circular geno...
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) impairs mitochondrial respiration by potently inhibiting the heme-copper cytochrome c oxidase. Since many prokaryotes, including Escherichia (E.) coli, generate H2S and encounter high H2S levels particularly in the human gut, herein we tested whether bacteria can sustain sulfide-resistant O2-dependent respiration. E. coli has three respiratory oxidases, the cyanide-sensitive heme-copper bo3 enzyme and two bd oxidases much less sensitive to cyanide. Working on the isolated enzymes, we found that, whereas the bo3 oxidase is inhibited by sulfide with half-maximal inhibitory concentration IC50 = 1.1 ± 0.1 μM, under identical experimental conditions both bd oxidases are insensitive to sulfide up to 58 μM. In E. coli respiratory mutants, both O2-consumption and aerobic growth proved to be severely impaired by sulfide when respiration was sustained by the bo3 oxidase alone, but unaffected by ≤200 μM sulfide when either bd enzyme acted as the only terminal oxidase. Accordingly, wild-type E. coli showed sulfide-insensitive respiration and growth under conditions favouring the expression of bd oxidases. In all tested conditions, cyanide mimicked the functional effect of sulfide on bacterial respiration. We conclude that bd oxidases promote sulfide-resistant O2-consumption and growth in E. coli and possibly other bacteria. The impact of this discovery is discussed.
Some DNA or RNA sequences rich in guanine (G) nucleotides can adopt non-canonical conformations known as G-quadruplexes (G4). In the nuclear genome, G4 motifs have been associated with genome instability and gene expression defects, but they are increasingly recognized to be regulatory structures. Recent studies have revealed that G4 structures can form in the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) and G4 forming potential sequences are associated with the origin of mtDNA deletions. However, little is known about the regulatory role of G4 structures in mitochondria. In this short review, we will explore the potential for G4 structures to regulate mitochondrial function, based on evidence from the nucleus.
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