Shallow, bar‐built estuaries on wave‐dominated coasts in Mediterranean climates experience an intermittent connection to the ocean. In the presence of low streamflow, their inlets may completely close as a result of nearshore sand transport, but even in the open condition, these inlets remain constricted. Extensive field measurements in the highly salt‐stratified Pescadero estuary in northern California show that the shallow mouth causes these estuaries to experience discontinuous tidal forcing. While the ocean and estuary are fully connected with near‐equal water levels, tidal velocities are slow but infragravity motions in the nearshore induce large velocity oscillations within the estuary. As the ocean tide falls, infragravity forcing is cut off, because the estuarine mouth is perched above the low tide ocean water level, and ebbing velocities are set by bed friction. Observations reveal this oscillation between ocean‐forced and frictionally controlled conditions characterizes and sets estuarine hydrodynamics. Additional wave setup of the lagoon emphasizes the dependence of these estuaries on nearshore ocean conditions, but the diurnal or semidiurnal retreat of the ocean below the mouth cuts off this nearshore influence so it too is tidally varying. Here we present detailed observations and a framework for understanding hydrodynamics in small, shallow bar‐built estuaries.

Continental shelf sediments are globally important for biogeochemical activity. Quantification of shelf-scale stocks and fluxes of carbon and nutrients requires the extrapolation of observations made at limited points in space and time. The procedure for selecting exemplar sites to form the basis of this upscaling is discussed in relation to a UK-funded research programme investigating biogeochemistry in shelf seas. A three-step selection process is proposed in which (1) a target area representative of UK shelf sediment heterogeneity is selected, (2) the target area is assessed for spatial heterogeneity in sediment and habitat type, bed and water column structure and hydrodynamic forcing, and (3) study sites are selected within this target area encompassing the range of spatial heterogeneity required to address key scientific questions regarding shelf scale biogeochemistry, and minimise confounding variables. This led to the selection of four sites within the Celtic Sea that are significantly different in terms of their sediment, bed structure, and macrofaunal, meiofaunal and microbial community structures and diversity, but have minimal variations in water depth, tidal and wave magnitudes and directions, temperature and salinity. They form the basis of a research cruise programme of observation, sampling and experimentation encompassing the spring bloom cycle. Typical variation in key biogeochemical, sediment, biological and hydrodynamic parameters over a pre to post bloom period are presented, with a discussion of anthropogenic influences in the region. This methodology ensures the best likelihood of site-specific work being useful for up-scaling activities, increasing our understanding of benthic biogeochemistry at the UK-shelf scale.

© 2017 The Authors. In situ measurements and ship-based resuspension experiments using annular flumes are used to determine sediment stability and critical erosion thresholds for four sites with significantly different sediment characteristics, located in the Celtic Sea at water depths of 100m. Seasonal and spatial variability of sediment characteristics and erodability is examined, and found to be the result of changes in percentage of organic carbon in the surface sediments (R 2 = 0.82) and bulk density (R 2 = 0.73) respectively when individual characteristic bed parameters are considered. Principal component analysis and linear regression analysis are used to determine a predictive model for erosion threshold in the Celtic Sea (R 2 = 0.99), based on grain size, sorting, kurtosis, bulk density, porosity, percentage fines, organic carbon content and chlorophyll a concentration. Physical sediment characteristics were found to be more significant controls of bed stability than biological factors. Local hydrodynamic conditions are used to determine the likelihood and frequency of resuspension given these critical erosion thresholds. Resuspension is driven by tidal currents, and is common year-round, leading to a constant re-working of bed sediments in particular at the muddier sites. This is confirmed by in situ measurements of suspended sediment concentration

Asymmetric tidal turbulence (ATT) strongly influences estuarine health and functioning. However, its impact on the three-dimensional estuarine dynamics and the feedback of water motion and salinity distribution on ATT remain poorly understood, especially for short estuaries (estuarine length ≪ tidal wavelength). This study systematically investigates the above-mentioned interactions in a short estuary for the first time, considering periodically weakly stratified conditions. This is done by developing a three-dimensional semi-analytical model (combining perturbation method with finite element method) that allows a dissection of the contributions of different processes to ATT, estuarine circulation, and salt transport. The generation of ATT is dominated by (i) strain-induced periodic stratification and (ii) asymmetric bottom shear generated turbulence, and their contributions to ATT are different both in amplitude and phase. The magnitude of the residual circulation related to ATT and the eddy viscosity-shear covariance (ESCO) is about half of that of the gravitational circulation (GC) and shows a ‘reversed’ pattern as compared to GC. ATT generated by (i) contributes to an ESCO circulation with a spatial structure similar to GC. This circulation reduces the longitudinal salinity gradients and thus weakens GC. Contrastingly, the ESCO circulation due to (ii) shows patterns opposite to GC and acts to enhance GC. Concerning the salinity dynamics at steady state, GC and tidal pumping are equally important to salt import, whereas ESCO circulation yields a significant seaward salt transport. These findings highlight the importance of identifying the sources of ATT to understand its impact on estuarine circulation and salt distribution.