c Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are small single-stranded DNA viruses that can package and deliver nongenomic DNA for therapeutic gene delivery. AAV8, a liver-tropic vector, has shown great promise for the treatment of hemophilia A and B. However, as with other AAV vectors, host anti-capsid immune responses are a deterrent to therapeutic success. To characterize the antigenic structure of this vector, cryo-electron microscopy and image reconstruction (cryo-reconstruction) combined with molecular genetics, biochemistry, and in vivo approaches were used to define an antigenic epitope on the AAV8 capsid surface for a neutralizing monoclonal antibody, ADK8. Docking of the crystal structures of AAV8 and a generic Fab into the cryo-reconstruction for the AAV8-ADK8 complex identified a footprint on the prominent protrusions that flank the 3-fold axes of the icosahedrally symmetric capsid. Mutagenesis and cell-binding studies, along with in vitro and in vivo transduction assays, showed that the major ADK8 epitope is formed by an AAV variable region, VRVIII (amino acids 586 to 591 [AAV8 VP1 numbering]), which lies on the surface of the protrusions facing the 3-fold axis. This region plays a role in AAV2 and AAV8 cellular transduction. Coincidently, cell binding and trafficking assays indicate that ADK8 affects a postentry step required for successful virus trafficking to the nucleus, suggesting a probable mechanism of neutralization. This structure-directed strategy for characterizing the antigenic regions of AAVs can thus generate useful information to help re-engineer vectors that escape host neutralization and are hence more efficacious.
b Adeno-associated virus (AAV) capsid assembly requires expression of the assembly-activating protein (AAP) together with capsid proteins VP1, VP2, and VP3. AAP is encoded by an alternative open reading frame of the cap gene. Sequence analysis and site-directed mutagenesis revealed that AAP contains two hydrophobic domains in the N-terminal part of the molecule that are essential for its assembly-promoting activity. Mutation of these sequences reduced the interaction of AAP with the capsid proteins. Deletions and a point mutation in the capsid protein C terminus also abolished capsid assembly and strongly reduced the interaction with AAP. Interpretation of these observations on a structural basis suggests an interaction of AAP with the VP C terminus, which forms the capsid protein interface at the 2-fold symmetry axis. This interpretation is supported by a decrease in the interaction of monoclonal antibody B1 with VP3 under nondenaturing conditions in the presence of AAP, indicative of steric hindrance of B1 binding to its C-terminal epitope by AAP. In addition, AAP forms high-molecular-weight oligomers and changes the conformation of nonassembled VP molecules as detected by conformation-sensitive monoclonal antibodies A20 and C37. Combined, these observations suggest a possible scaffolding activity of AAP in the AAV capsid assembly reaction.A deno-associated virus (AAV) is a nonenveloped singlestranded DNA virus of the Parvoviridae family (15). To date, 13 distinct human or nonhuman primate AAV serotypes have been described and numerous recombinant species have been isolated (10). The AAV assembly pathway proposed by Myers and Carter suggests the rapid formation of empty capsids into which the single-stranded genome is inserted in a slow reaction (16). While the process of genome replication has been elucidated in great detail (15,22), molecular events underlying capsid formation and genome encapsidation are less well understood (12).Capsid assembly occurs in the nuclei of infected cells, where capsids are first detectable in the nucleoli but are spread throughout the nucleus at later stages of infection (23). Expression of the cap gene is sufficient for capsid formation. Besides the three capsid proteins, VP1, VP2, and VP3, known to be expressed from open reading frame 1 (ORF1), the cap gene encodes an assembly factor, the assembly-activating protein (AAP), from a second ORF, ORF2 (21). AAP is essential for capsid assembly. It targets newly synthesized capsid proteins to the nucleolus and promotes capsid formation in a still unknown way. AAPs of some, but not all, AAV serotypes can cross-complement each other in the assembly reaction (20). AAP is a rather unstable protein but becomes stabilized upon the coexpression of capsid protein VP3. However, this stabilizing effect depends very much on the serotype of the coexpressed capsid protein, indicating specific AAP-VP protein interactions (20). AAP amino acid sequence alignment of serotypes 1 to 13 shows a high degree of homology. Only AAPs from serotypes 4, 5, 1...
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