Reactive astrocytes in neurotrauma, stroke, or neurodegeneration are thought to undergo cellular hypertrophy, based on their morphological appearance revealed by immunohistochemical detection of glial fibrillary acidic protein, vimentin, or nestin, all of them forming intermediate filaments, a part of the cytoskeleton. Here, we used a recently established dye-filling method to reveal the full three-dimensional shape of astrocytes assessing the morphology of reactive astrocytes in two neurotrauma models. Both in the denervated hippocampal region and the lesioned cerebral cortex, reactive astrocytes increased the thickness of their main cellular processes but did not extend to occupy a greater volume of tissue than nonreactive astrocytes. Despite this hypertrophy of glial fibrillary acidic protein-containing cellular processes, interdigitation between adjacent hippocampal astrocytes remained minimal. This work helps to redefine the century-old concept of hypertrophy of reactive astrocytes.astrocyte domains ͉ astrocyte hypertrophy O nce considered to be merely a cellular layer filling the interneuronal space and gluing neurons together (hence the term ''glia''), astrocytes are receiving ever-increasing attention. The rising recognition of their importance builds on knowledge of their role in maintaining CNS homeostasis, providing nutrition for neuronal cells, and neurotransmitter recycling. Recently, astrocytes were shown to control the number and function of neuronal synapses (1, 2) and blood flow in the brain (3, 4).Astrocytes exhibit an intricate bushy or spongiform morphology, and their very fine processes are in close contact with synapses and other components of brain parenchyma (5-8). These fine terminal processes appear postnatally in the final stage of astrocyte maturation. The subsequent elaboration of spongiform processes results in the development of boundaries between neighboring astrocyte domains, thus establishing exclusive territories for individual astrocytes, a phenomenon termed ''tiling'' (7, 9).With earlier methods, including immunohistochemical detection of astrocyte markers and impregnation techniques, the extent of overlap between astrocyte territories was not amenable to investigation. However, more recent staining methods, optical imaging techniques, and 3D reconstruction paradigms using dye-filled astrocytes in semifixed tissue allowed the assessment of the boundaries of protoplasmic astrocyte territories in the CA1 area of the uninjured rat hippocampus. Neighboring astrocytes invariably touched each other but showed little interdigitation, basically tiling to form unique domains (8).Astrocytes react to many CNS challenges, and reactive astrocytes are a hallmark of many neuropathologies. Reactive astrocytes are characterized by high-level expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), an intermediate filament protein, and by upregulation of intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm. Antibodies against GFAP, the most frequently used astrocyte marker (10), reveal the cytoskeletal struct...

Dominant missense mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common genetic causes of Parkinson disease (PD) and genome-wide association studies identify LRRK2 sequence variants as risk factors for sporadic PD. Intact kinase function appears critical for the toxicity of LRRK2 PD mutants, yet our understanding of how LRRK2 causes neurodegeneration remains limited. We find that most LRRK2 PD mutants abnormally enhance LRRK2 oligomerization, causing it to form filamentous structures in transfections of cell lines or primary neuronal cultures. Strikingly, ultrastructural analyses, including immuno-electron microscopy and electron microscopic tomography, demonstrate that these filaments consist of LRRK2 recruited onto part of the cellular microtubule network in a well-ordered, periodic fashion. Like LRRK2-related neurodegeneration, microtubule association requires intact kinase function and the WD40 domain, potentially linking microtubule binding and neurodegeneration. Our observations identify a novel effect of LRRK2 PD mutations and highlight a potential role for microtubules in the pathogenesis of LRRK2-related neurodegeneration.

The hippocampal mossy fiber (MF) terminal is among the largest and most complex synaptic structures in the brain. Our understanding of the development of this morphologically elaborate structure has been limited because of the inability of standard electron microscopy techniques to quickly and accurately reconstruct large volumes of neuropil. Here we use serial block-face electron microscopy (SBEM) to surmount these limitations and investigate the establishment of MF connectivity during mouse postnatal development. Based on volume reconstructions, we find that MF axons initially form bouton-like specializations directly onto dendritic shafts, that dendritic protrusions primarily arise independently of bouton contact sites, and that a dramatic increase in presynaptic and postsynaptic complexity follows the association of MF boutons with CA3 dendritic protrusions. We also identify a transient period of MF bouton filopodial exploration, followed by refinement of sites of synaptic connectivity. These observations enhance our understanding of the development of this highly specialized synapse and illustrate the power of SBEM to resolve details of developing microcircuits at a level not easily attainable with conventional approaches.

The emergence of electron tomography as a tool for three dimensional structure determination of cells and tissues has brought its own challenges for the preparation of thick sections. High pressure freezing in combination with freeze substitution provides the best method for obtaining the largest volume of well-preserved tissue. However, for deeply embedded, heterogeneous, labile tissues needing careful dissection, such as brain, the damage due to anoxia and excision before cryofixation is significant. We previously demonstrated that chemical fixation prior to high pressure freezing preserves fragile tissues and produces superior tomographic reconstructions compared to equivalent tissue preserved by chemical fixation alone. Here, we provide further characterization of the technique, comparing the ultrastructure of Flock House Virus infected DL1 insect cells that were 1) high pressure frozen without fixation, 2) high pressure frozen following fixation, and 3) conventionally prepared with aldehyde fixatives. Aldehyde fixation prior to freezing produces ultrastructural preservation superior to that obtained through chemical fixation alone that is close to that obtained when cells are fast frozen without fixation. We demonstrate using a variety of nervous system tissues, including neurons that were injected with a fluorescent dye and then photooxidized, that this technique provides excellent preservation compared to chemical fixation alone and can be extended to selectively stained material where cryofixation is impractical.

Modifications to the gene encoding human alpha-synuclein have been linked to development of Parkinson’s disease. The highly conserved structure of alpha-synuclein suggests a functional interaction with membranes, and several lines of evidence point to a role in vesicle-related processes within nerve terminals. Using recombinant fusions of human alpha-synuclein including new genetic tags developed for correlated LM and EM (the tetracysteine-biarsenical labeling system or the new fluorescent protein for EM, MiniSOG), we determined the distribution of alpha-synuclein when over-expressed in primary neurons at supramolecular and cellular scales, in three dimensions (3D). We observed specific association of alpha-synuclein with a large and otherwise poorly characterized membranous organelle system of the presynaptic terminal, as well as with smaller vesicular structures within these boutons. Furthermore, alpha-synuclein was localized to multiple elements of the protein degradation pathway, including multivesicular bodies in the axons and lysosomes within neuronal cell bodies. Examination of synapses in brains of transgenic mice over-expressing human alpha-synuclein revealed alterations of the presynaptic endomembrane systems similar to our findings in cell culture. 3D electron tomographic analysis of enlarged presynaptic terminals in several brain areas revealed that these terminals were filled with membrane-bounded organelles, including tubulo-vesicular structures similar to what observed in vitro. We propose that alpha-synuclein over-expression is associated with hypertrophy of membrane systems of the presynaptic terminal previously shown to have a role in vesicle recycling. Our data support the conclusion that alpha- synuclein is involved in processes associated with the sorting, channeling, packaging and transport of synaptic material destined for degradation.