Entecavir (ETV) exhibits potent antiviral activity in patients chronically infected with wild-type or lamivudine (3TC)-resistant (3TC r ) hepatitis B virus (HBV). Among the patients treated in phase II ETV clinical trials, two patients for whom previous therapies had failed exhibited virologic breakthrough while on ETV.Isolates from these patients (arbitrarily designated patients A and B) were analyzed genotypically for emergent substitutions in HBV reverse transcriptase (RT) and phenotypically for reduced susceptibility in cultures and in HBV polymerase assays. After 54 weeks of 3TC therapy, patient A (AI463901-A) received 0.5 mg of ETV for 52 weeks followed by a combination of ETV and 100 mg of 3TC for 89 weeks. Viral rebound occurred at 133 weeks after ETV was started. The 3TC r RT substitutions rtV173L, rtL180M, and rtM204V were present at study entry, and the additional substitutions rtI169T and rtM250V emerged during ETV-3TC combination treatment. Reduced ETV susceptibility in vitro required the rtM250V substitution in addition to the 3TC r substitutions. For liver transplant patient B (AI463015-B), previous famciclovir, ganciclovir, foscarnet, and 3TC therapies had failed, and RT changes rtS78S/T, rtV173L, rtL180M, rtT184S, and rtM204V were present at study entry. Viral rebound occurred after 76 weeks of therapy with ETV at 1.0 mg, with the emergence of rtT184G, rtI169T, and rtS202I substitutions within the preexisting 3TC r background. Reduced susceptibility in vitro was highest when both the rtT184G and the rtS202I changes were combined with the 3TC r substitutions. In summary, infrequent ETV resistance can emerge during prolonged therapy, with selection of additional RT substitutions within a 3TC r HBV background, leading to reduced ETV susceptibility and treatment failure.Nearly 400 million people are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) worldwide (16,19). After prolonged infections, often lasting decades, patients frequently develop severe liver disease that can lead to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Chronically infected patients also serve as sources of HBV transmission. There are currently three approved therapies for chronic HBV infections: interferon, lamivudine (3TC; ␤-L-2Ј,3Ј-dideoxy-3Ј-thiacytidine), and adefovir-dipivoxil, the prodrug of adefovir [ADV; 9-(2-phosphonylmethoxyethyl)adenine] (18). Interferon is administered subcutaneously and is associated with numerous adverse events, some of which can be severe, and a sustained antiviral response in only 30 to 40% of treated patients (30). 3TC treatment, administered orally, is effective in reducing viral loads but results in the frequent emergence of drug-resistant HBV due to substitutions at the Tyr-Met-Asp-Asp (YMDD) nucleotide binding site motif of viral DNA polymerase. Data from four large clinical trials revealed 3TC resistance (3TC r ) mutations in 24, 42, 53, and 70% of patients after 1, 2, 3, and 4 years of therapy, respectively (15). Treatment with ADV, recently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration,...

Comprehensive monitoring of genotypic and phenotypic antiviral resistance was performed on 673 entecavir (ETV)-treated nucleoside naïve hepatitis B virus (HBV) patients. ETV reduced HBV DNA levels to undetectable by PCR (<300 copies/mL, <57 IU/mL) in 91% of hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg)-positive and -negative patients by Week 96. Thirteen percent (n ‫؍‬ 88) of the comparator lamivudine (LVD)-treated patients experienced a virologic rebound (>1 log increase from nadir by PCR) in the first year, with 74% of these having LVD resistance (LVDr) substitutions evident. In contrast, only 3% (n ‫؍‬ 22) of ETV-treated patients exhibited virologic rebound by Week 96. Three ETV rebounds were attributable to LVDr virus present at baseline, with one having a S202G ETV resistance (ETVr) substitution emerge at Week 48. None of the other rebounding patients had emerging genotypic resistance or loss of ETV susceptibility. Genotyping all additional ETV patients with PCR-detectable HBV DNA at Weeks 48, 96, or end of dosing identified seven additional patients with LVDr substitutions, including one with simultaneous emergence of LVDr/ETVr. Generally, ETV patients with LVDr were detectable at baseline (8/10) and most subsequently achieved undetectable HBV DNA levels on ETV therapy (7/10). No other emerging substitutions identified decreased ETV susceptibility. In conclusion, ETVr emergence in ETV-treated nucleoside naïve patients over a 2-year period is rare, occurring in two patients with LVDr variants. These findings suggest that the rapid, sustained suppression of HBV replication, combined with a requirement for multiple substitutions, creates a high genetic barrier to ETVr in nucleoside naïve patients.

Entecavir (ETV) is a deoxyguanosine analog approved for use for the treatment of chronic infection with wild-type and lamivudine-resistant (LVDr) hepatitis B virus (HBV).In LVD-refractory patients, 1.0 mg ETV suppressed HBV DNA levels to below the level of detection by PCR (<300 copies/ml) in 21% and 34% of patients by Weeks 48 and 96, respectively. Prior studies showed that virologic rebound due to ETV resistance (ETVr) required preexisting LVDr HBV reverse transcriptase substitutions M204V and L180M plus additional changes at T184, S202, or M250. To monitor for resistance, available isolates from 192 ETV-treated patients were sequenced, with phenotyping performed for all isolates with all emerging substitutions, in addition to isolates from all patients experiencing virologic rebounds. The T184, S202, or M250 substitution was found in LVDr HBV at baseline in 6% of patients and emerged in isolates from another 11/187 (6%) and 12/151 (8%) ETV-treated patients by Weeks 48 and 96, respectively. However, use of a more sensitive PCR assay detected many of the emerging changes at baseline, suggesting that they originated during LVD therapy. Only a subset of the changes in ETVr isolates altered their susceptibilities, and virtually all isolates were significantly replication impaired in vitro. Consequently, only 2/187 (1%) patients experienced ETVr rebounds in year 1, with an additional 14/151 (9%) patients experiencing ETVr rebounds in year 2. Isolates from all 16 patients with rebounds were LVDr and harbored the T184 and/or S202 change. Seventeen other novel substitutions emerged during ETV therapy, but none reduced the susceptibility to ETV or resulted in a rebound. In summary, ETV was effective in LVD-refractory patients, with resistant sequences arising from a subset of patients harboring preexisting LVDr/ETVr variants and with approximately half of the patients experiencing a virologic rebound.More than 350 million people worldwide are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) (32); and many will ultimately develop severe liver disease, including cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and liver failure. Significant improvements in patient outcomes have been realized since the use of antiviral therapy for HBV. Due to the poor efficacies of these therapies and the emergence of viral resistance, however, additional therapies are needed (16). Prior to 2005, HBV therapies included parenteral regimens containing interferon alfa and the oral nucleoside/nucleotide analogs lamivudine (LVD) and adefovir dipivoxil (ADV). However, interferon alfa shows poor response rates and poor sustained efficacy (ϳ30 to 40% [reviewed in reference 18]), has low tolerability, and is contraindicated in patients with decompensated liver disease. LVD and ADV are associated with the development of viral resistance. LVD resistance (LVDr) is reported to occur in 24% of patients treated for 1 year, and this rate increases to 70% after 4 years (19). The rate of ADV resistance (ADVr) in nucleoside-naïve HBeAg-negative HBV patients has been r...

Human interleukin 2 (IL-2; Proleukin) is an approved therapeutic for advanced-stage metastatic cancer; however, its use is restricted because of severe systemic toxicity. Its function as a central mediator of T-cell activation may contribute to its efficacy for cancer therapy. However, activation of natural killer (NK) cells by therapeutically administered IL-2 may mediate toxicity. Here we have used targeted mutagenesis of human IL-2 to generate a mutein with approximately 3,000-fold in vitro selectivity for T cells over NK cells relative to wild-type IL-2. We compared the variant, termed BAY 50-4798, with human IL-2 (Proleukin) in a therapeutic dosing regimen in chimpanzees, and found that although the T-cell mobilization and activation properties of BAY 50-4798 were comparable to human IL-2, BAY 50-4798 was better tolerated in the chimpanzee. BAY 50-4798 was also shown to inhibit metastasis in a mouse tumor model. These results indicate that BAY 50-4798 may exhibit a greater therapeutic index than IL-2 in humans in the treatment of cancer and AIDS.

Cancer patients receiving epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) antibody therapy often experience an acneiform rash of uncertain etiology in skin regions rich in pilosebaceous units. Currently, this condition is treated symptomatically with very limited, often anecdotal success. Here, we show that a monoclonal antibody targeting murine EGFR, ME1, caused a neutrophil-rich hair follicle inflammation in mice, similar to that reported in patients. This effect was preceded by the appearance of lipid-filled hair follicle distensions adjacent to enlarged sebaceous glands. The cytokine tumor necrosis factor-A (TNFA), localized immunohistochemically to this affected region of the pilosebaceous unit, was specifically upregulated by ME1 in skin but not in other tissues examined. Moreover, skin inflammation was reduced by cotreatment with the TNFA signaling inhibitor, etanercept, indicating the involvement of TNFA in this inflammatory process. Interleukin-1, a cytokine that frequently acts in concert with TNFA, is also involved in this process given the efficacy of the interleukin-1 antagonist Kineret. Our results provide a mechanistic framework to develop evidence-based trials for EGFR antibody-induced skin rash in patients with cancer.