epithelial, connective, and nerve tissues of vertebrates. It is designated as a glycosaminoglycan. [1] Glycosaminoglycans are composed of disaccharide blocks of N-acetylgalactosamine or N-acetylglucosamine, (amino sugars) and uronic sugars such as glucuronic acid, iduronic acid or galactose. This group of heteropolysaccharides comprises HA, chondroitin sulfates, dermatan sulfate, heparin and heparin sulfates whose sulfation degree is less than that of heparin. Unlike other glycosaminoglycans, hyaluronan is not sulfated and it is self-standing, i.e. without an association with a core protein. [2] It was isolated in 1934 by Meyer and Palmer from bovine vitreous humor. [3] The polymer chain of hyaluronan comprises repeating disaccharide units where the pyranose rings are connected by β-1,3 bonds. The repeating units are bonded with a β-1,4 glycosidic bond within the chain between N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid. At physiological pH each glucuronate unit, associated with its carboxylate group, carries an anionic charge. The hundreds of negative charges are fixed to each chain. These anionic groups are balanced with mobile cations such as Na + , K + , Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ . During ionization of D-glucuronic acid with the carboxylic groups, the charges influence the organization of the chains and their interactions with their surroundings. In turn, they are affected by pH and ionic strength. The chain organization and charge directly affect the solubility in water, since hyaluronan is water-insoluble when convertedAs an Extracellular Matrix (ECM) component, Hyaluronic acid (HA) plays a multi-faceted role in cell migration, proliferation and differentiation at micro level and system level events such as tissue water homeostasis. Among its biological functions, it is known to interact with cytokines and contribute to their retention in ECM microenvironment. In addition to its biological functions, it has advantageous physical properties which result in the industrial endeavors in the synthesis and extraction of HA for variety of applications ranging from medical to cosmetic. Recently, HA and its derivatives have been the focus of active research for applications in biomedical device coatings, drug delivery systems and in the form of scaffolds or cell-laden hydrogels for tissue engineering. A specific reason for the increase in use of HA based structures is their immunomodulatory and regeneration inducing capacities. In this context, this article reviews recent literature on modulation of the implantable biomaterial microenvironment by systems based on HA and its derivatives, particularly hydrogels and microscale coatings that are able to deliver cytokines in order to reduce the adverse immune reactions and promote tissue healing.

Hyaluronic acid (HA) injections represent one of the most common methods for the treatment of osteoarthritis. However, the clinical results of this method are unambiguous mainly because the mechanism of action has not been clearly clarified yet. Viscosupplementation consists, inter alia, of the improvement of synovial fluid rheological properties by injected solution. The present paper deals with the effect of HA molecular weight on the rheological properties of its solutions and also on friction in the articular cartilage model. Viscosity and viscoelastic properties of HA solutions were analyzed with a rotational rheometer in a cone–plate and plate–plate configuration. In total, four HA solutions with molecular weights between 77 kDa and 2010 kDa were tested. The frictional measurements were realized on a commercial tribometer Bruker UMT TriboLab, while the coefficient of friction (CoF) dependency on time was measured. The contact couple consisted of the articular cartilage pin and the plate made from optical glass. The contact was fully flooded with tested HA solutions. Results showed a strong dependency between HA molecular weight and its rheological properties. However, no clear dependence between HA molecular weight and CoF was revealed from the frictional measurements. This study presents new insight into the dependence between rheological and frictional behavior of the articular cartilage, while such an extensive investigation has not been presented before.

Injectable hydrogels that aim to mechanically stabilise the weakened left ventricle (LV) wall to restore cardiac function or to deliver stem cells in cardiac regenerative therapy have shown promising data. However, the clinical translation of hydrogel-based therapies has been limited due to difficulties injecting them through catheters. We have engineered a novel catheter (AMCath) that overcomes translational hurdles associated with delivering fast-gelling covalently cross-linked hyaluronic acid hydrogels to the myocardium. We developed an experimental technique to measure the force required to inject such hydrogels and determined the mechanical/ viscoelastic properties of the resulting hydrogels. The preliminary in vivo feasibility of delivering fast-gelling hydrogels through AMCath was demonstrated by accessing the porcine LV and showing that the hydrogel was retained in the myocardium postinjection (three 200μL injections delivered, 192, 204 and 183μL measured). However, the mechanical properties of the hydrogels were reduced by passage through AMCath (≤20.62% reduction). We have also shown AMCath can be used to deliver c-ADSC loaded hydrogels without compromising the viability (80% viability) of the c-ADSCs in vitro. Therefore, we show that hydrogel/catheter compatibility issues can be overcome as we have demonstrated the minimally invasive delivery of a fast gelling covalently cross-linked hydrogel to the beating myocardium.

Hydrogel scaffolds which bridge the lesion, together with stem cell therapy represent a promising approach for spinal cord injury (SCI) repair. In this study, a hydroxyphenyl derivative of hyaluronic acid (HA-PH) was modified with the integrin-binding peptide arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD), and enzymatically crosslinked to obtain a soft injectable hydrogel. Moreover, addition of fibrinogen was used to enhance proliferation of human Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hWJ-MSCs) on HA-PH-RGD hydrogel. The neuroregenerative potential of HA-PH-RGD hydrogel was evaluated in vivo in acute and subacute models of SCI. Both HA-PH-RGD hydrogel injection and implantation into the acute spinal cord hemisection cavity resulted in the same axonal and blood vessel density in the lesion area after 2 and 8 weeks. HA-PH-RGD hydrogel alone or combined with fibrinogen (HA-PH-RGD/F) and seeded with hWJ-MSCs was then injected into subacute SCI and evaluated after 8 weeks using behavioural, histological and gene expression analysis. A subacute injection of both HA-PH-RGD and HA-PH-RGD/F hydrogels similarly promoted axonal ingrowth into the lesion and this effect was further enhanced when the HA-PH-RGD/F was combined with hWJ-MSCs. On the other hand, no effect was found on locomotor recovery or the blood vessel ingrowth and density of glial scar around the lesion. In conclusion, we have developed and characterized injectable HA-PH-RGD based hydrogel, which represents a suitable material for further combinatorial therapies in neural tissue engineering. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 106A: 1129-1140, 2018.

The five year mortality rate for heart failure borders on 50%. The main cause is an ischaemic cardiac event where blood supply to the tissue is lost and cell death occurs. Over time this damage spreads and the heart is no longer able to pump efficiently. Increasing vascularisation of the affected area has been shown to reduce patient symptoms. The growth factors required to do this have short half-lives making development of an efficacious therapy difficult. Herein, the angiogenic growth factor Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) is complexed electrostatically with star-shaped or linear polyglutamic acid (PGA) polypeptides. Optimised PGA-VEGF nanomedicines provide VEGF encapsulation of >99% and facilitate sustained release of VEGF for up to 28 days in vitro. The star-PGA-VEGF nanomedicines are loaded into a percutaneous delivery compliant hyaluronic acid hydrogel. Sustained release of VEGF from the composite nano-in-gel system is evident for up to 35 days and the released VEGF has comparable bioactivity to free, fresh VEGF when tested on both Matrigel® and scratch assays. Therefore, we report the development of novel, self-assembling PGA-VEGF nanomedicines and their incorporation into a hyaluronic acid hydrogel that is compatible with medical devices to enable minimally-invasive delivery to the heart. The final star-PGA-VEGF nanomedicine-loaded hydrogel is biocompatible and provides sustained release of bioactive VEGF. This formulation provides the basis for optimal spatiotemporal delivery of an angiogenic growth factor to the ischaemic myocardium.