Both acute and chronic apelin treatment have been shown to improve insulin sensitivity in mice. However, the effects of apelin on fatty acid oxidation (FAO) during obesity-related insulin resistance have not yet been addressed. Thus, the aim of the current study was to determine the impact of chronic treatment on lipid use, especially in skeletal muscles. High-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese and insulin-resistant mice treated by an apelin injection (0.1 μmol/kg/day i.p.) during 4 weeks had decreased fat mass, glycemia, and plasma levels of triglycerides and were protected from hyperinsulinemia compared with HFD PBS-treated mice. Indirect calorimetry experiments showed that apelin-treated mice had a better use of lipids. The complete FAO, the oxidative capacity, and mitochondrial biogenesis were increased in soleus of apelin-treated mice. The action of apelin was AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) dependent since all the effects studied were abrogated in HFD apelin-treated mice with muscle-specific inactive AMPK. Finally, the apelin-stimulated improvement of oxidative capacity led to decreased levels of acylcarnitines and enhanced insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in soleus. Thus, by promoting complete lipid use in muscle of insulin-resistant mice through mitochondrial biogenesis and tighter matching between FAO and the tricarboxylic acid cycle, apelin treatment could contribute to insulin sensitivity improvement.

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Recent studies have demonstrated that the rat adipose tissue expresses some of the components necessary for the production of angiotensin II (Ang II) and the receptors mediating its actions. The aim of this work is to characterize the expression of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) components in perivascular adipose tissue and to assess differences in the expression pattern depending on the vascular bed and type of adipose tissue. We analyzed Ang I and Ang II levels as well as mRNA levels of RAS components by a quantitative RT-PCR method in periaortic (PAT) and mesenteric adipose tissue (MAT) of 3-month-old male Wistar-Kyoto rats. PAT was identified as brown adipose tissue expressing uncoupling protein-1 (UCP-1). It had smaller adipocytes than those from MAT, which was identified as white adipose tissue. All RAS components, except renin, were detected in both PAT and MAT. Levels of expression of angiotensinogen, Ang-converting enzyme (ACE), and ACE2 were similar between PAT and MAT. Renin receptor expression was five times higher, whereas expression of chymase, AT 1a , and AT 2 receptors were significantly lower in PAT compared with MAT respectively. In addition, three isoforms of the AT 1a receptor were found in perivascular adipose tissue. The AT 1b receptor was found at very a low expression level. Ang II levels were higher in MAT with no differences between tissues in Ang I. The results show that the RAS is differentially expressed in white and brown perivascular adipose tissues implicating a different role for the system depending on the vascular bed and the type of adipose tissue.

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Valladolid-Acebes I, Merino B, Principato A, Fole A, Barbas C, Lorenzo MP, García A, Del Olmo N, Ruiz-Gayo M, Cano V. High-fat diets induce changes in hippocampal glutamate metabolism and neurotransmission. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 302: E396 -E402, 2012. First published November 22, 2011; doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00343.2011.-Obesity and high-fat (HF) diets have a deleterious impact on hippocampal function and lead to impaired synaptic plasticity and learning deficits. Because all of these processes need an adequate glutamatergic transmission, we have hypothesized that nutritional imbalance triggered by these diets might eventually concern glutamate (Glu) neural pathways within the hippocampus. Glu is withdrawn from excitatory synapses by specific uptake mechanisms involving neuronal (EAAT-3) and glial (GLT-1, GLAST) transporters, which regulate the time that synaptically released Glu remains in the extracellular space and, consequently, the duration and location of postsynaptic receptor activation. The goal of the present study was to evaluate in mouse hippocampus the effect of a short-term high-fat dietary treatment on 1) Glu uptake kinetics, 2) the density of Glu carriers and Glu-degrading enzymes, 3) the density of Glu receptor subunits, and 4) synaptic transmission and plasticity. Here, we show that HF diet triggers a 50% decrease of the Michaelis-Menten constant together with a 300% increase of the maximal velocity of the uptake process. Glial Glu carriers GLT-1 and GLAST were upregulated in HF mice (32 and 27%, respectively), whereas Glu-degrading enzymes glutamine synthase and GABA-decarboxilase appeared to be downregulated in these animals. In addition, HF diet hippocampus displayed diminished basal synaptic transmission and hindered NMDAinduced long-term depression (NMDA-LTD). This was coincident with a reduced density of the NR2B subunit of NMDA receptors. All of these results are compatible with the development of leptin resistance within the hippocampus. Our data show that HF diets upregulate mechanisms involved in Glu clearance and simultaneously impair Glu metabolism. Neurochemical changes occur concomitantly with impaired basal synaptic transmission and reduced NMDA-LTD. Taken together, our results suggest that HF diets trigger neurochemical changes, leading to a desensitization of NMDA receptors within the hippocampus, which might account for cognitive deficits. obesity; electrophysiology; learning; long-term depression; glutamate uptake; leptin resistance GLUTAMATE (Glu) uptake is a pivotal process regulating excitatory transmission within the central nervous system, and its efficacy accounts for the time that released Glu remains in the extracellular space and, consequently, the duration of postsynaptic receptor activation. Glu uptake is carried out by specific neuronal (EAAT-3) and glial (GLT-1, GLAST) transporters, which display dynamic processes aimed at improving Glu clearance under conditions leading to increased release of Glu (27, 34). Impairment of Glu uptake due to brain injury (24, 28...

BackgroundThe hypothesis of this study is that long-term high-fat diets (HFD) induce perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) dysfunction characterized by a redox imbalance, which might contribute to aggravate endothelial dysfunction in obesity.Methods and ResultsC57BL/6J mice were fed either control or HFD (45% kcal from fat) for 32 weeks. Body weight, lumbar and mesenteric adipose tissue weights were significantly higher in HFD animals compared to controls. The anticontractile effect of PVAT in mesenteric arteries (MA) was lost after 32 week HFD and mesenteric endothelial-dependent relaxation was significantly impaired in presence of PVAT in HFD mice (Emax = 71.0±5.1 vs Emax = 58.5±4.2, p<0.001). The inhibitory effect of L-NAME on Ach-induced relaxation was less intense in the HFD group compared with controls suggesting a reduction of endothelial NO availability. Expression of eNOS and NO bioavailability were reduced in MA and almost undetectable in mesenteric PVAT of the HFD group. Superoxide levels and NOX activity were higher in PVAT of HFD mice. Apocynin only reduced contractile responses to NA in HFD animals. Expression of ec-SOD and total SOD activity were significantly reduced in PVAT of HFD mice. No changes were observed in Mn-SOD, Cu/Zn-SOD or catalase. The ratio [GSSG]/([GSH]+[GSSG]) was 2-fold higher in the mesenteric PVAT from HFD animals compared to controls.ConclusionsWe suggest that the imbalance between pro-oxidant (NOX, superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide) and anti-oxidant (eNOS, NO, ecSOD, GSSG) mechanisms in PVAT after long-term HFD might contribute to the aggravation of endothelial dysfunction.

Perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) plays a paracrine role in regulating vascular tone. We hypothesize that PVAT undergoes adaptative mechanisms during initial steps of diet-induced obesity (DIO) which contribute to preserve vascular function. Four-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were assigned either to a control [low-fat (LF); 10% kcal from fat] or to a high-fat diet (HF; 45% kcal from fat). After 8 wk of dietary treatment vascular function was analyzed in the whole perfused mesenteric bed (MB) and in isolated mesenteric arteries cleaned of PVAT. Relaxant responses to acetylcholine (10(-9)-10(-4) m) and sodium nitroprusside (10(-12)-10(-5) m) were significantly ameliorated in the whole MB from HF animals. However, there was no difference between HF and LF groups in isolated mesenteric arteries devoid of PVAT. The enhancement of relaxant responses detected in HF mice was not attributable to an increased release of nitric oxide (NO) from the endothelium nor to an increased sensitivity and/or activity of muscular guanilylcyclase. Mesenteric PVAT of HF animals showed an increased bioavailability of NO, detected by 4,5-diaminofluorescein diacetate (DAF2-DA) staining, which positively correlated with plasma leptin levels. DAF-2DA staining was absent in PVAT from ob/ob mice but was detected in these animals after 4-wk leptin replacement. The main finding in this study is that adaptative NO overproduction occurs in PVAT during early DIO which might be aimed at preserving vascular function.