Direct numerical simulation of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations is used to study flows where laminar boundary-layer separation is followed by turbulent reattachment forming a closed region known as a laminar separation bubble. In the simulations a laminar boundary layer is forced to separate by the action of a suction profile applied as the upper boundary condition. The separated shear layer undergoes transition via oblique modes and Λ-vortex-induced breakdown and reattaches as turbulent flow, slowly recovering to an equilibrium turbulent boundary layer. Compared with classical experiments the computed bubbles may be classified as 'short', as the external potential flow is only affected in the immediate vicinity of the bubble. Near reattachment budgets of turbulence kinetic energy are dominated by turbulence events away from the wall. Characteristics of near-wall turbulence only develop several bubble lengths downstream of reattachment. Comparisons are made with two-dimensional simulations which fail to capture many of the detailed features of the full three-dimensional simulations. Stability characteristics of mean flow profiles are computed in the separated flow region for a family of velocity profiles generated using simulation data. Absolute instability is shown to require reverse flows of the order of 15-20%. The three-dimensional bubbles with turbulent reattachment have maximum reverse flows of less than 8% and it is concluded that for these bubbles the basic instability is convective in nature.

Abstract:Lack of access to energy is considered as a serious bottleneck for the socio-economic development of Bangladesh. Despite earning recognition for promoting solar home systems, most of the rural areas and remote islands of the country still remain non-electrified due to very high unit cost and low quality of electricity from solar home systems (SHS) coupled with only few hours of restricted usages in the evening. Considering the resource potential and demand characteristics at the local level, the present study investigates the hybrid renewable mini-grid approach as a possible solution for universal electricity access in the country. Using Hybrid Optimisation of Multiple Energy Resources (HOMER) simulation model, the study, covering the whole coastal region of Bangladesh, shows that it is possible to offer a much better quality electricity for 12 h to 18 h a day for as low as USD 0.29-USD 0.31/kWh. Hybrid models suggested in this study can be replicated along the coastal belt and remote islands to obtain maximum diffusion of this technology and hence universal electrification.

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Growing demand of energy consumption, subsequent increase in energy generation costs, and increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as well as global warming from the conventional energy sources, encourages interest worldwide to bring a higher percentage of renewable energy sources such as biogas into the energy mix to build a climate friendly environment for the future. Moreover, due to high investment and maintenance costs, governments are not providing enough support for grid extension and delivering electricity to remote locations or rural areas, in particular, in under-developing countries like Bangladesh. Therefore, this paper presents an Energy Neutral Home System (ENHS) that can meet all its energy requirements from low-cost, locally available, nonpolluting biogas generated from animal waste, in particular, chicken and cow manure. The proposed ENHS has been developed for rural community, typically an area of 200 families, and will not only provide cooking gas and sustainable and affordable power supply to the community with low emissions, but will also facilitate high quality fertilizer for agricultural purposes. In-depth analysis clearly demonstrates that the proposed ENHS not only offers electricity and cooking gas to the community with the lowest costs, but also reduces the energy crisis and GHG emissions and can play an active role in developing socio-economic infrastructure of rural communities in Bangladesh in many ways. V C 2016 AIP Publishing LLC.

This paper presents results covering the efficiency of appliances to support reduce power needs in both mini grids and upgradeable solar home systems. In addition the research has compared the efficacy of DC vs AC mini grids at different scales. In general, the results indicated that DC mini grids could compete well at sites with a smaller geographical footprint, providing efficient appliances are integrated at system implementation. At the higher ‘tiers’ of electrification, we also present results and experiences from the five e4D solar photovoltaics (PV) mini-grid projects in Kenya and Uganda. The work includes analysis of community engagement, electrical load characterisation, and system operation of the mini grids in rural settings. The results indicate that energy consumption varies significantly between the sites, associated with socio-economic factors, whilst all the villages’ trading centres have experienced varying levels of business growth. Overall outcomes from this research provide clear indications that mini-grid interventions not only invigorate rural communities by enhancing education and health provisions, but are also associated with growth in existing businesses and the creation of new businesses. Therefore, it is recommended that where needed, rural electrification policies be amended to give priority to facilitate and attract investment in decentralized mini grids.