The Basidiomycota constitutes a major phylum of the kingdom Fungi and is second in species numbers to the Ascomycota. The present work provides an overview of all validly published, currently used basidiomycete genera to date in a single document. An outline of all genera of Basidiomycota is provided, which includes 1928 currently used genera names, with 1263 synonyms, which are distributed in 241 families, 68 orders, 18 classes and four subphyla. We provide brief notes for each accepted genus including information on classification, number of accepted species, type species, life mode, habitat, distribution, and sequence information. Furthermore, three phylogenetic analyses with combined LSU, SSU, 5.8s, rpb1, rpb2, and ef1 datasets for the subphyla Agaricomycotina, Pucciniomycotina and Ustilaginomycotina are conducted, respectively. Divergence time estimates are provided to the family level with 632 species from 62 orders, 168 families and 605 genera. Our study indicates that the divergence times of the subphyla in Basidiomycota are 406–430 Mya, classes are 211–383 Mya, and orders are 99–323 Mya, which are largely consistent with previous studies. In this study, all phylogenetically supported families were dated, with the families of Agaricomycotina diverging from 27–178 Mya, Pucciniomycotina from 85–222 Mya, and Ustilaginomycotina from 79–177 Mya. Divergence times as additional criterion in ranking provide additional evidence to resolve taxonomic problems in the Basidiomycota taxonomic system, and also provide a better understanding of their phylogeny and evolution.

Mushroom-forming fungi (Agaricomycetes) have the greatest morphological diversity and complexity of any group of fungi. They have radiated into most niches and fulfill diverse roles in the ecosystem, including wood decomposers, pathogens or mycorrhizal mutualists. Despite the importance of mushroom-forming fungi, large-scale patterns of their evolutionary history are poorly known, in part due to the lack of a comprehensive and dated molecular phylogeny. Here, using multigene and genome-based data, we assemble a 5,284-species phylogenetic tree and infer ages and broad patterns of speciation/extinction and morphological innovation in mushroom-forming fungi. Agaricomycetes started a rapid class-wide radiation in the Jurassic, coinciding with the spread of (sub)tropical coniferous forests and a warming climate. A possible mass extinction, several clade-specific adaptive radiations, and morphological diversification of fruiting bodies followed during the Cretaceous and the Paleogene, convergently giving rise to the classic toadstool morphology, with a cap, stalk, and gills (pileate-stipitate morphology). This morphology is associated with increased rates of lineage diversification, suggesting it represents a key innovation in the evolution of mushroom-forming fungi. The increase in mushroom diversity started during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic radiation event, an era of humid climate when terrestrial communities dominated by gymnosperms and reptiles were also expanding.

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Angola , Gnomoniopsis angolensis and Pseudopithomyces angolensis on unknown host plants. Australia , Dothiora corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora, Neoeucasphaeria eucalypti (incl. Neoeucasphaeria gen. nov.) on Eucalyptus sp., Fumagopsis stellae on Eucalyptus sp., Fusculina eucalyptorum (incl. Fusculinaceae fam. nov.) on Eucalyptus socialis, Harknessia corymbiicola on Corymbia maculata, Neocelosporium eucalypti (incl. Neocelosporium gen. nov., Neocelosporiaceae fam. nov. and Neocelosporiales ord. nov.) on Eucalyptus cyanophylla, Neophaeomoniella corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora , Neophaeomoniella eucalyptigena on Eucalyptus pilularis, Pseudoplagiostoma corymbiicola on Corymbia citriodora, Teratosphaeria gracilis on Eucalyptus gracilis, Zasmidium corymbiae on Corymbia citriodora. Brazil , Calonectria hemileiae on pustules of Hemileia vastatrix formed on leaves of Coffea arabica , Calvatia caatinguensis on soil, Cercospora solani-betacei on Solanum betaceum , Clathrus natalensis on soil, Diaporthe poincianellae on Poincianella pyramidalis , Geastrum piquiriunense on soil, Geosmithia carolliae on wing of Carollia perspicillata , Henningsia resupinata on wood, Penicillium guaibinense from soil, Periconia caespitosa from leaf litter, Pseudocercospora styracina on Styrax sp., Simplicillium filiforme as endophyte from Citrullus lanatus , Thozetella pindobacuensis on leaf litter, Xenosonderhenia coussapoae on Coussapoa floccosa. Canary Islands (Spain) , Orbilia amarilla on Euphorbia canariensis. Cape Verde Islands , Xylodon jacobaeus on Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Chile , Colletotrichum arboricola on Fuchsia magellanica. Costa Rica , Lasiosph...

Aim Current evidence from temperate studies suggests that ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi require overland routes for migration because of their obligate symbiotic associations with woody plants. Despite their key roles in arctic ecosystems, the phylogenetic diversity and phylogeography of arctic ECM fungi remains little known. Here we assess the phylogenetic diversity of ECM communities in an isolated, formerly glaciated, high arctic archipelago, and provide explanations for their phylogeographic origins.Location Svalbard.Methods We generated and analysed internal transcribed spacer (ITS) nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences from both curated sporocarp collections (from Svalbard) and soil polymerase chain reaction (PCR) clone libraries (from Svalbard and the North American Arctic), compared these with publicly available sequences in GenBank, and estimated the phylogenetic diversity of ECM fungi in Svalbard. In addition, we conducted coalescent analyses to estimate migration rates in selected species.Results Despite Svalbard's geographic isolation and arctic climate, its ECM fungi are surprisingly diverse, with at least 72 non-singleton operational taxonomic units (soil) and 109 phylogroups (soil + sporocarp). The most species-rich genera are Thelephora/Tomentella, Cortinarius and Inocybe, followed by Hebeloma, Russula, Lactarius, Entoloma, Sebacina, Clavulina, Laccaria, Leccinum and Alnicola. Despite the scarcity of available reference data from other arctic regions, the majority of the phylogroups (73.4%) were also found outside Svalbard. At the same time, all putative Svalbard 'endemics' were newly sequenced taxa from diverse genera with massive undocumented diversity. Overall, our results support long-distance dispersal more strongly than vicariance and glacial survival. However, because of the high variation in nucleotide substitution rates among fungi, allopatric persistence since the Pliocene, although unlikely, cannot be statistically rejected. Results from the coalescent analyses suggest recent gene flow among different arctic areas. Main conclusionsOur results indicate numerous recent colonization events and suggest that long-distance, transoceanic dispersal is widespread in arctic ECM fungi, which differs markedly from the currently prevailing view on the dispersal capabilities of ECM fungi. Our molecular evidence indicates that long-distance dispersal has probably played a major role in the phylogeographic history of some ECM fungi in the Northern Hemisphere. Our results may have implications for studies on the biodiversity, ecology and conservation of arctic fungi in general.

Novel species of microfungi described in the present study include the following from Australia: Catenulostroma corymbiae from Corymbia, Devriesia stirlingiae from Stirlingia, Penidiella carpentariae from Carpentaria, Phaeococcomyces eucalypti from Eucalyptus, Phialophora livistonae from Livistona, Phyllosticta aristolochiicola from Aristolochia, Clitopilus austroprunulus on sclerophyll forest litter of Eucalyptus regnans and Toxicocladosporium posoqueriae from Posoqueria. Several species are also described from South Africa, namely: Ceramothyrium podocarpi from Podocarpus, Cercospora chrysanthemoides from Chrysanthemoides, Devriesia shakazului from Aloe, Penidiella drakensbergensis from Protea, Strelitziana cliviae from Clivia and Zasmidium syzygii from Syzygium. Other species include Bipolaris microstegii from Microstegium and Synchaetomella acerina from Acer (USA), Brunneiapiospora austropalmicola from Rhopalostylis (New Zealand), Calonectria pentaseptata from Eucalyptus and Macadamia (Vietnam), Ceramothyrium melastoma from Melastoma (Indonesia), Collembolispora aristata from stream foam (Czech Republic), Devriesia imbrexigena from glazed decorative tiles (Portugal), Microcyclospora rhoicola from Rhus (Canada), Seiridium phylicae from Phylica (Tristan de Cunha, Inaccessible Island), Passalora lobeliae-fistulosis from Lobelia (Brazil) and Zymoseptoria verkleyi from Poa (The Netherlands). Valsalnicola represents a new ascomycete genus from Alnus (Austria) and Parapenidiella a new hyphomycete genus from Eucalyptus (Australia). Morphological and culture characteristics along with ITS DNA barcodes are also provided.

The influence of colony tissue regeneration on growth was studied in the reef-building coral Montastrea annularis (Ellis & Solander, 1786) by buoyant weighing. Experimental corals consisted of a series of cores, 2 cores from each of 20 colonies. One core of each pair was artificially damaged by removing approximately 1 cm2 of tissue and skeleton, the other served as a control for normal growth. Growth was measured as calcification, i.e. mg calcium carbonate production. There was a linear relation between growth and solar radiation. Variation in growth, calculated before the regeneration experiment, was insignificant between cores from the same colony but significantly different between colonies. Growth was reduced in damaged cores when compared to controls. Calcification decreased immediately upon damage and remained reduced during the whole study (56 d). Lesions caused by physical damage did not always close completely. We propose and test a model that describes regeneration in terms of closure of lesions. Thls model includes an asymptote in an exponentially decreasing function. Calcification remained suppressed after regeneration slowed down and lesions were still not completely closed, probably because of the formation of polyps and skeletal features in the new tissue. We suggest regeneration to be fuelled by polyps and tissue directly bordeling the damaged area. Also, successful regeneration depends on the amount of tissue bordering a lesion and not on colony size.

The phylogeny of the Entolomataceae was reconstructed using three loci (RPB2, LSU and mtSSU) and, in conjunction with spore morphology (using SEM and TEM), was used to address four main systematic issues: 1) the monophyly of the Entolomataceae; 2) inter-generic relationships within the Entolomataceae; 3) genus delimitation of Entolomataceae; and 4) spore evolution in the Entolomataceae. Results confirm that the Entolomataceae (Entoloma, Rhodocybe, Clitopilus, Richoniella and Rhodogaster) is monophyletic and that the combination of pinkish spore prints and spores having bumps and/or ridges formed by an epicorium is a synapomorphy for the family. The Entolomataceae is made up of two sister clades: one with Clitopilus nested within Rhodocybe and another with Richoniella and Rhodogaster nested within Entoloma. Entoloma is best retained as one genus. The smaller genera within Entoloma s.l. are either polyphyletic or make other genera paraphyletic. Spores of the clitopiloid type are derived from rhodocyboid spores. The ancestral spore type of the Entolomataceae was either rhodocyboid or entolomatoid. Taxonomic and nomenclatural changes are made including merging Rhodocybe into Clitopilus and transferring relevant species into Clitopilus and Entoloma.

Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Australia, Chaetomella pseudocircinoseta and Coniella pseudodiospyri on Eucalyptus microcorys leaves, Cladophialophora eucalypti, Teratosphaeria dunnii and Vermiculariopsiella dunnii on Eucalyptus dunnii leaves, Cylindrium grande and Hypsotheca eucalyptorum on Eucalyptus grandis leaves, Elsinoe salignae on Eucalyptus saligna leaves, Marasmius lebeliae on litter of regenerating subtropical rainforest, Phialoseptomonium eucalypti (incl. Phialoseptomonium gen. nov.) on Eucalyptus grandis × camaldulensis leaves, Phlogicylindrium pawpawense on Eucalyptus tereticornis leaves, Phyllosticta longicauda as an endophyte from healthy Eustrephus latifolius leaves, Pseudosydowia eucalyptorum on Eucalyptus sp. leaves, Saitozyma wallum on Banksia aemula leaves, Teratosphaeria henryi on Corymbia henryi leaves. Brazil, Aspergillus bezerrae, Backusella azygospora, Mariannaea terricola and Talaromyces pernambucoensis from soil, Calonectria matogrossensis on Eucalyptus urophylla leaves, Calvatia brasiliensis on soil, Carcinomyces nordestinensis on Bromelia antiacantha leaves, Dendryphiella stromaticola on small branches of an unidentified plant, Nigrospora brasiliensis on Nopalea cochenillifera leaves, Penicillium alagoense as a leaf endophyte on a Miconia sp., Podosordaria nigrobrunnea on dung, Spegazzinia bromeliacearum as a leaf endophyte on Tilandsia catimbauensis, Xylobolus brasiliensis on decaying wood. Bulgaria, Kazachstania molopis from the gut of the beetle Molops piceus. Croatia, Mollisia endocrystallina from a fallen decorticated Picea abies tree trunk. Ecuador, Hygrocybe rodomaculata on soil. Hungary, Alfoldia vorosii (incl.Alfoldia gen. nov.) from Juniperus communis roots, Kiskunsagia ubrizsyi (incl. Kiskunsagia gen. nov.) from Fumana procumbens roots. India, Aureobasidium tremulum as laboratory contaminant, Leucosporidium himalayensis and Naganishia indica from windblown dust on glaciers. Italy, Neodevriesia cycadicola on Cycas sp. leaves, Pseudocercospora pseudomyrticola on Myrtus communis leaves, Ramularia pistaciae on Pistacia lentiscus leaves, Neognomoniopsis quercina (incl. Neognomoniopsis gen. nov.) on Quercus ilex leaves. Japan, Diaporthe fructicola on Passiflora edulis × P. edulis f. flavicarpa fruit, Entoloma nipponicum on leaf litter in a mixed Cryptomeria japonica and Acer spp. forest. Macedonia, Astraeus macedonicus on soil. Malaysia, Fusicladium eucalyptigenum on Eucalyptus sp. twigs, Neoacrodontiella eucalypti (incl. Neoacrodontiella gen. nov.) on Eucalyptus urophylla leaves. Mozambique, Meliola gorongosensis on dead Philenoptera violacea leaflets. Nepal, Coniochaeta dendrobiicola from Dendriobium lognicornu roots. New Zealand, Neodevriesia sexualis and Thozetella neonivea on Archontophoenix cunninghamiana leaves. Norway, Calophoma sandfjordenica from a piece of board on a rocky shoreline, Clavaria parvispora on soil, Didymella finnmarkica from a piece of Pinus sylvestris driftwood. Poland, Sugiyamaella trypani from soil. Portugal, Colletotrichum feijoicola from Acca sellowiana. Russia, Crepidotus tobolensis on Populus tremula debris, Entoloma ekaterinae, Entoloma erhardii and Suillus gastroflavus on soil, Nakazawaea ambrosiae from the galleries of Ips typographus under the bark of Picea abies. Slovenia, Pluteus ludwigii on twigs of broadleaved trees. South Africa, Anungitiomyces stellenboschiensis (incl. Anungitiomyces gen. nov.) and Niesslia stellenboschiana on Eucalyptus sp. leaves, Beltraniella pseudoportoricensis on Podocarpus falcatus leaf litter, Corynespora encephalarti on Encephalartos sp. leaves, Cytospora pavettae on Pavetta revoluta leaves, Helminthosporium erythrinicola on Erythrina humeana leaves, Helminthosporium syzygii on a Syzygium sp. barkcanker, Libertasomyces aloeticus on Aloe sp. leaves, Penicillium lunae from Musa sp. fruit, Phyllosticta lauridiae on Lauridia tetragona leaves, Pseudotruncatella bolusanthi (incl. Pseudotruncatellaceae fam. nov.) and Dactylella bolusanthi on Bolusanthus speciosus leaves. Spain, Apenidiella foetida on submerged plant debris, Inocybe grammatoides on Quercus ilex subsp. ilex forest humus, Ossicaulis salomii on soil, Phialemonium guarroi from soil. Thailand, Pantospora chromolaenae on Chromolaena odorata leaves. Ukraine, Cadophora helianthi from Helianthus annuus stems. USA, Boletus pseudopinophilus on soil under slash pine, Botryotrichum foricae, Penicillium americanum and Penicillium minnesotense from air. Vietnam, Lycoperdon vietnamense on soil. Morphological and culture characteristics are supported by DNA barcodes.