Psoriasis is an ancient, universal chronic skin disease with a significant geographical variability, with the lowest incidence rate at the equator, increasing towards the poles. Insights into the mechanisms responsible for psoriasis have generated an increasing number of druggable targets and molecular drugs. The development of relevant in vitro and in vivo models of psoriasis is now a priority and an important step towards its cure. In this review, we summarize the current cellular and animal systems suited to the study of psoriasis. We discuss the strengths and limitations of the various models and the lessons learned. We conclude that, so far, there is no one model that can meet all of the research needs. Therefore, the choice model system will depend on the questions being addressed.

Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPSs) are inherited metabolic diseases caused by mutations resulting in deficiency of one of enzymes involved in degradation of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). These compounds accumulate in cells causing their dysfunctions. Genistein is a molecule previously found to both modify GAG metabolism and modulate cell cycle. Therefore, we investigated whether the cell cycle is affected in MPS cells and if genistein can influence this process. Fibroblasts derived from patients suffering from MPS types I, II, IIIA and IIIB, as well as normal human fibroblasts (the HDFa cell line) were investigated. MTT assay was used for determination of cell proliferation, and the cell cycle was analyzed by using the MUSE® Cell Analyzer. While effects of genistein on cell proliferation were similar in both normal and MPS fibroblasts, fractions of cells in the G0/G1 phase were higher, and number of cells entering the S and G2/M phases was considerably lower in MPS II fibroblasts relative to control cells. Somewhat similar tendency, though significantly less pronounced, could be noted in MPS I, but only at longer times of incubation. However, this was not observed in MPS IIIA and MPS IIIB fibroblasts. Genistein (5, 7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one) was found to be able to partially correct the disturbances in the MPS II cell cycle, and to some extent in MPS I, at higher concentrations of this compound. The tendency to increase the fractions of cells entering the S and G2/M phases was also observed in MPS IIIA and IIIB fibroblasts treated with genistein. In conclusion, this is the first report indicating that the cell cycle can be impaired in MPS cells. The finding that genistein can improve the MPS II (and to some extent also MPS I) cell cycle provides an input to our knowledge on the molecular mechanisms of action of this compound.

Sphingolipids (SLs), which have structural and biological responsibilities in the human epidermis, are importantly involved in the maintenance of the skin barrier and regulate cellular processes, such as the proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of keratinocytes (KCs). As many dermatologic diseases, including psoriasis (PsO), intricately characterized by perturbations in these cellular processes, are associated with altered composition and unbalanced metabolism of epidermal SLs, more education to precisely determine the role of SLs, especially in the pathogenesis of skin disorders, is needed. PsO is caused by a complex interplay between skin barrier disruption, immune dysregulation, host genetics and environmental triggers. The contribution of particular cellular compartments and organelles in SL metabolism, a process related to dysfunction of lysosomes in PsO, seems to have a significant impact on lysosomal signalling linked to a modulation of the immune-mediated inflammation accompanying this dermatosis and is not fully understood. It is also worth noting that a prominent skin disorder, such as PsO, has diminished levels of the main epidermal SL ceramide (Cer), reflecting altered SL metabolism, that may contribute not only to pathogenesis but also to disease severity and/or progression. This review provides a brief synopsis of the implications of SLs in PsO, aims to elucidate the roles of these molecules in complex cellular processes deregulated in diseased skin tissue and highlights the need for increased research in the field. The significance of SLs as structural and signalling molecules and their actions in inflammation, in which these components are factors responsible for vascular endothelium abnormalities in the development of PsO, are discussed.

Research in recent years has shown that sphingolipids are essential signalling molecules for the proper biological and structural functioning of cells. Long-term studies on the metabolism of sphingolipids have provided evidence for their role in the pathogenesis of a number of diseases. As many inflammatory diseases, such as lysosomal storage disorders and some dermatologic diseases, including psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and ichthyoses, are associated with the altered composition and metabolism of sphingolipids, more studies precisely determining the responsibilities of these compounds for disease states are required to develop novel pharmacological treatment opportunities. It is worth emphasizing that knowledge from the study of inflammatory metabolic diseases and especially the possibility of their treatment may lead to insight into related metabolic pathways, including those involved in the formation of the epidermal barrier and providing new approaches towards workable therapies.