We show that in the potassium channel KcsA, proton-dependent activation is followed by an inactivation process similar to C-type inactivation, and this process is suppressed by an E71A mutation in the pore helix. EPR spectroscopy demonstrates that the inner gate opens maximally at low pH regardless of the magnitude of the single-channel-open probability, implying that stationary gating originates mostly from rearrangements at the selectivity filter. Two E71A crystal structures obtained at 2.5 A reveal large structural excursions of the selectivity filter during ion conduction and provide a glimpse of the range of conformations available to this region of the channel during gating. These data establish a mechanistic basis for the role of the selectivity filter during channel activation and inactivation.

The coupled interplay between activation and inactivation gating is a functional hallmark of K+ channels1,2. This coupling has been experimentally demonstrated from ion interaction effects3,4, cysteine accessibility1 and is associated with a well-defined boundary of energetically coupled residues2. The structure of KcsA in its fully open conformation, as well as four other partial openings, richly illustrates the structural basis of activation-inactivation gating5. Here, we have identified the mechanistic principles by which movements on the inner bundle gate trigger conformational changes at the selectivity filter, leading to the non-conductive C-type inactivated state. Analysis of a series of KcsA open structures suggests that as a consequence of the hinge bending and rotation of TM2, the aromatic ring of Phe103 tilts towards residues Thr74 and Thr75 in the pore helix as well as Ile100 in the neighboring subunit. This allows the network of hydrogen bonds among residues W67, E71, and D80 to destabilize the selectivity filter6,7, facilitating entry to its non-conductive conformation. Mutations at position 103, affect gating kinetics in a size-dependent way: small side chain substitutions F103A and F103C severely impair inactivation kinetics, while larger side chains (F103W) have more subtle effects. This suggests that the allosteric coupling between the inner helical bundle and the selectivity filter might rely on straightforward mechanical deformation propagated through a network of steric contacts. Average interactions calculated from molecular dynamics simulations show favourable open state interaction-energies between Phe103 and surrounding residues. Similar interactions were probed in the Shaker K-channel where inactivation was impaired in the mutant I470A. We propose that side chain rearrangements at position 103 mechanically couple activation and inactivation in KcsA and a variety of other K channels.

Snakes possess a unique sensory system for detecting infrared radiation, enabling them to generate a ‘thermal image’ of predators or prey. Infrared signals are initially received by the pit organ, a highly specialized facial structure that is innervated by nerve fibers of the somatosensory system. How this organ detects and transduces infrared signals into nerve impulses is not known. Here we use an unbiased transcriptional profiling approach to identify TRPA1 channels as infrared receptors on sensory nerve fibers that innervate the pit organ. TRPA1 orthologues from pit bearing snakes (vipers, pythons, and boas) are the most heat sensitive vertebrate ion channels thus far identified, consistent with their role as primary transducers of infrared stimuli. Thus, snakes detect infrared signals through a mechanism involving radiant heating of the pit organ, rather than photochemical transduction. These findings illustrate the broad evolutionary tuning of TRP channels as thermosensors in the vertebrate nervous system.

Summary The capsaicin receptor, TRPV1, is regulated by phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), although the precise nature of this effect (i.e., positive or negative) remains controversial. Here, we reconstitute purified TRPV1 into artificial liposomes, where it is gated robustly by capsaicin, protons, spider toxins and, notably, heat, demonstrating intrinsic sensitivity of the channel to both chemical and thermal stimuli. TRPV1 is fully functional in the absence of phosphoinositides, arguing against their proposed obligatory role in channel activation. Rather, introduction of various phosphoinositides, including PIP2, PI4P and PI, inhibits TRPV1, supporting a model whereby phosphoinositide turnover contributes to thermal hyperalgesia by disinhibiting the channel. Using an orthogonal chemical strategy, we show that association of the TRPV1 C-terminus with the bilayer modulates channel gating, consistent with phylogenetic data implicating this domain as a key regulatory site for tuning stimulus sensitivity. Beyond TRPV1, these findings are relevant to understanding how membrane lipids modulate other “receptor-operated” TRP channels.