Nocturnal avian migration flyways remain an elusive concept, as we have largely lacked methods to map their full extent. We used the network of European weather radars to investigate nocturnal bird movements at the scale of the European flyway. We mapped the main migration directions and showed the intensity of movement across part of Europe by extracting biological information from 70 weather radar stations from northern Scandinavia to Portugal, during the autumn migration season of 2016. On average, over the 20 nights and all sites, 389 birds passed per 1 km transect per hour. The night with highest migration intensity showed an average of 1621 birds km–1 h–1 passing the radar stations, but there was considerable geographical and temporal variation in migration intensity. The highest intensity of migration was seen in central France. The overall migration directions showed strong southwest components. Migration dynamics were strongly related to synoptic wind conditions. A wind‐related mass migration event occurred immediately after a change in wind conditions, but quickly diminished even when supporting winds continued to prevail. This first continental‐scale study using the European network of weather radars demonstrates the wealth of information available and its potential for investigating large‐scale bird movements, with consequences for ecosystem function, nutrient transfer, human and livestock health, and civil and military aviation.

Maximum altitudes of soaring migration for White Pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus), White Storks (Ciconia ciconia), Lesser Spotted Eagles (Aquila pomarina), and Honey Buzzards (Pernis apivorus) were measured in central west Israel and compared to the upper boundary of thermal convection and thermal intensity as predicted by the convection model ALPTHERM. The model predictions of upper boundary of convection explained at least 20% of the variance in maximum altitudes of migration for each species studied. Each species used thermal convection differently. White Pelicans, with the largest wing loading, used 54% of the thermal boundary layer, as calculated by dividing the maximum flight altitude by the modeled thermal depth. White Storks and Lesser Spotted Eagles used 69% and 65%, respectively; Honey Buzzards, with the lowest wing loading, used 95% of the thermal boundary layer. Mean lift rate of convection had a stronger effect on maximum altitudes of flight or the proportion of the thermal boundary layer used by Lesser Spotted Eagles and Honey Buzzards, than it did on storks and pelicans. Honey Buzzards, which combine flapping with soaring flight, were not confined to the thermal boundary layer. Changes in migration altitudes within a species and differential use of thermal convection between species were related to a combination of upper boundary of thermal convection, average lift rate, migratory behavior, wing loading, topography, and additional local meteorological conditions. Uso Diferencial de la Convección Térmica por Aves que Realizan Vuelos Planeados Elevados Sobre Israel Central Resumen. Se midieron las alturas máximas de planeo elevado durante la migración al oeste de Israel central para Pelecanus onocrotalus, Ciconia ciconia, Aquila pomarina y Pernis apivorus, y se compararon con el límite superior de la convección y la intensidad térmica predicho por el modelo de convección ALPTHERM. Las predicciones del límite superior de convección del modelo explicaron al menos el 20% de la varianza en alturas máximas de migración para cada especie estudiada. Cada especie utilizó la convección térmica de una forma diferente. Pelecanus onocrotalus, la especie con la mayor carga alar, utilizó el 54% de la capa térmica límite, lo que se calculó dividiendo la altura máxima de vuelo por la profundidad térmica modelada. Ciconia ciconia y A. pomarina usaron el 69% y 65% de la capa térmica límite, respectivamente; P. apivorus, la especie con menor carga alar, utilizó el 95%. La tasa promedio de fuerza ascensional de convección tuvo un efecto más marcado en las alturas máximas de vuelo o la proporción de la capa térmica utilizada en A. pomarina y P. apivorus que en P. onocrotalus y C. ciconia. Pernis apivorus, que combina el aleteo con el vuelo planeado, no estuvo confinada a la capa térmica límite. Los cambios en las alturas de migración dentro de una especie y el uso diferencial de la convección térmica entre especies estuvieron relacionados con una combinación del límite superior de la convección térmica, la tasa promedio de fuerza ascensional, el comportamiento migratorio, la carga alar, la topografía y condiciones meteorológicas locales adicionales.

Aims Different aspects of soaring-bird migration are influenced by weather. However, the relationship between weather and the onset of soaring-bird migration, particularly in autumn, is not clear. Although long-term migration counts are often unavailable near the breeding areas of many soaring birds in the western Palaearctic, soaring-bird migration has been systematically monitored in Israel, a region where populations from large geographical areas converge. This study tests several fundamental hypotheses regarding the onset of migration and explores the connection between weather, migration onset and arrival at a distant site.Location Globally gridded meteorological data from the breeding areas in north-eastern Europe were used as predictive variables in relation to the arrival of soaring migrants in Israel. MethodsInverse modelling was used to study the temporal and spatial influence of weather on initiation of migration based on autumn soaring-bird migration counts in Israel. Numerous combinations of migration duration and temporal influence of meteorological variables (temperature, sea-level pressure and precipitable water) were tested with different models for meteorological sensitivity. ResultsThe day of arrival in Israel of white storks, honey buzzards, Levant sparrowhawks and lesser spotted eagles was significantly and strongly related to meteorological conditions in the breeding area days or even weeks before arrival in Israel. The cumulative number of days or cumulative value above or below a meteorological threshold performed significantly better than other models tested. Models provided reliable estimates of migration duration for each species. Main conclusionsThe meteorological triggers of migration at the breeding grounds differed between species and were related to deteriorating living conditions and deteriorating migratory flight conditions. Soaring birds are sensitive to meteorological triggers at the same period every year and their temporal response to weather appears to be constrained by their annual routine.

The aerosphere is utilized by billions of birds, moving for different reasons and from short to great distances spanning tens of thousands of kilometres. The aerosphere, however, is also utilized by aviation which leads to increasing conflicts in and around airfields as well as en‐route. Collisions between birds and aircraft cost billions of euros annually and, in some cases, result in the loss of human lives. Simultaneously, aviation has diverse negative impacts on wildlife. During avian migration, due to the sheer numbers of birds in the air, the risk of bird strikes becomes particularly acute for low‐flying aircraft, especially during military training flights. Over the last few decades, air forces across Europe and the Middle East have been developing solutions that integrate ecological research and aviation policy to reduce mutual negative interactions between birds and aircraft. In this paper we 1) provide a brief overview of the systems currently used in military aviation to monitor bird migration movements in the aerosphere, 2) provide a brief overview of the impact of bird strikes on military low‐level operations, and 3) estimate the effectiveness of migration monitoring systems in bird strike avoidance. We compare systems from the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Poland and Israel, which are all areas that Palearctic migrants cross twice a year in huge numbers. We show that the en‐route bird strikes have decreased considerably in countries where avoidance systems have been implemented, and that consequently bird strikes are on average 45% less frequent in countries with implemented avoidance systems in place. We conclude by showing the roles of operational weather radar networks, forecast models and international and interdisciplinary collaboration to create safer skies for aviation and birds.

On their migratory journeys, terrestrial birds can come across large inhospitable areas with limited opportunities to rest and refuel. Flight over these areas poses a risk especially when wind conditions en route are adverse, in which case inhospitable areas can act as an ecological barrier for terrestrial migrants. Thus, within the east-Atlantic flyway, the North Sea can function as an ecological barrier. The main aim of this study was to shed light on seasonal patterns of bird migration in the southern North Sea and determine whether departure decisions on nights of intense migration were related to increased wind assistance. We measured migration characteristics with a radar that was located 18 km off the NW Dutch coast and used simulation models to infer potential departure locations of birds on nights with intense nocturnal bird migration. We calculated headings, track directions, airspeeds, groundspeeds on weak and intense migration nights in both seasons and compared speeds between seasons. Moreover, we tested if departure decisions on intense migration nights were associated with supportive winds. Our results reveal that on the intense migration nights in spring, the mean heading was towards E, and birds departed predominantly from the UK. On intense migration nights in autumn, the majority of birds departed from Denmark, Germany and north of the Netherlands with the mean heading towards SW. Prevailing winds from WSW at departure were supportive of a direct crossing of the North Sea in spring. However, in autumn winds were generally not supportive, which is why many birds exploited positive wind assistance which occurred on intense migration nights. This implies that the seasonal wind regimes over the North Sea alter its migratory dynamics which is reflected in headings, timing and intensity of migration.