We describe a new species of pitviper of the genus Bothrops from the Peruvian Pampas del Heath, in the Bahuaja-Sonene National Park. Pampas del Heath is an area of seasonally flooded savannas and a northwestern extension of the Gran Chaco Boliviano-Paraguayo. The new species is easily distinguished from its congeners by the exclusive combination of dorsal color pattern of body consisting of small C-shaped blotches, postocular stripe originating posteriorly to the eye, covering posterior supralabials, dorsum of the head with paired markings arranged symmetrically, venter cream heavily speckled with brown, prelacunal scale discrete in contact with second supralabial, three to five prefoveals, subfoveal single usually present, postfoveals absent to two, canthals two, seven intersupraoculars, one or two suboculars, two or three postoculars, seven or eight supralabials, nine to eleven infralabials, 26–27 interrictals, 23–25 middorsal scales, 172 ventrals in the female and 169–173 in males, 45 subcaudals in the female and 50 in males. We performed separate and combined phylogenetic analyses based on morphology and five mitochondrial genes and recovered the new species as a member of the Bothrops neuwiedi species group. All lineages of this clade inhabit the South American dry diagonal. This novel species of pitviper increases the known diversity of the genus Bothrops and adds to the number of described taxa from the unique and scarcely known ecosystem of Pampas del Heath.

This study documents the current state of conservation knowledge on threatened amphibian species in Peru. Following the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classification system, we considered species in the following categories: Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, and Near Threatened. Even though only the first three categories are regarded as threatened by IUCN, we included the fourth category to make comparisons with the list of threatened species issued by the Peruvian government. We used the Global Amphibian Assessment's database and the list issued in Peru for this comparison. We conducted separate field surveys in 17 regions of Peru to evaluate the presence/absence of threatened amphibian species and species that are potentially threatened. We also used the Declining Amphibian Database-DAPTF, to compare our results with previous assessments on population declines, and the World Wildlife Fund's Wildfinder database, to determine in which Neotropical ecoregion each species occurs. We compiled data on 83 species, 44 of which are recognized as threatened by the IUCN and/or the Peruvian government. The remaining 39 species should be re-assessed as they face various threats. A re-evaluation of current estimates is needed as only 8% of all species recorded in Peru are recognized as threatened by the government, whereas the global estimate of threatened species is about 32%. In addition to using IUCN criteria, this re-assessment should follow national guidelines standardized in Peru and be in accordance with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Because the habitat of almost 40% of threatened species reported herein still remains unprotected, and data on chytridiomycosis and other threats are lacking for most taxa, it is crucial to develop strategies for habitat conservation and research on disease dynamics in natural populations. Keywords: amphibian conservation, population declines, Peru, protected areasTropical Conservation Science | ISSN 1940-0829 | tropicalconservationscience.org 376Mongabay.com Open Access Journal -Tropical Conservation Science Vol. 1(4):376-396, 2008Resumen Este estudio presenta información actualizada sobre conservación de especies amenazadas de anfibios en Perú. Consideramos las siguientes categorías según la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN): En Peligro Crítico, En Peligro, Vulnerable y Casi Amenazado. Sólo las tres primeras categorías son consideradas como amenazadas según UICN, sin embargo incluimos la cuarta categoría para hacer comparaciones con la lista de especies amenazadas emitida por el gobierno peruano. Usamos la base de datos de la Evaluación Global de Anfibios y la lista emitida en Perú para hacer esta comparación. Asimismo, hicimos evaluaciones de campo en 17 regiones de Perú para evaluar la presencia/ausencia de especies amenazadas y especies que podrían estar amenazadas. También comparamos nuestros resultados de campo con otras bases de datos. Comp...

Aim One of the planet's most imposing geomorphological features, the Andes, played an important role in the evolution of South America's flora and fauna. The bothriurid scorpion genus Brachistosternus Pocock, 1893 comprises more than 40 species with high diversity and endemism in the Andes. The present contribution investigates the biogeographical history of this genus using molecular phylogenetics and dating, to determine the role of Andean uplift on the distribution and diversification of its species. Location South America. Methods A dated species tree was obtained for 55 putative species based on two nuclear and three mitochondrial gene loci. Ancestral ranges and biogeographical events were estimated on the species tree, diversification rates and rate shifts calculated, and areas with high phylogenetic diversity (PD) and evolutionary distinctiveness identified. Results Brachistosternus diversified at a steady rate during the main Andean uplift. The central Andean and western slope/Pacific coastal biogeographical provinces played important roles as ancestral areas. Coastal areas of central Chile and southern Peru exhibit high levels of PD in Brachistosternus, suggesting they experienced a relatively long period of ecological stability, while the Andes continued to rise. Main conclusions Andean uplift created new habitats and climate regimes, favouring speciation in genera such as Brachistosternus. Coastal areas to the west of the Andes continued to harbour older lineages while accommodating more recently diverged lineages from the nearby Andes.

Autotomy, the voluntary shedding or detachment of a body part at a determined cleavage plane, is a common anti-predation defense mechanism in several animal taxa, including arthropods. Among arachnids, autotomy has been observed in harvestmen, mites, and spiders, always involving the loss of legs. Autotomy of the opisthosoma (abdomen) was recently reported in a single species of the Neotropical buthid scorpion genus Ananteris Thorell, 1891, but few details were revealed. Based on observations in the field and laboratory, examination of material in museum collections, and scanning electron microscopy, we document autotomy of the metasoma (the hind part of the opisthosoma, or ‘tail’) in fourteen species of Ananteris. Autotomy is more common in males than females, and has not been observed in juveniles. When the scorpion is held by the metasoma, it is voluntarily severed at the joints between metasomal segments I and II, II and III, or III and IV, allowing the scorpion to escape. After detachment, the severed metasoma moves (twitches) automatically, much like the severed tail of a lizard or the severed leg of a spider, and reacts to contact, even attempting to sting. The severed surface heals rapidly, scar tissue forming in five days. The lost metasomal segments and telson cannot be regenerated. Autotomy of the metasoma and telson results in permanent loss of the posterior part of the scorpion’s digestive system (the anus is situated posteriorly on metasomal segment V) and the ability to inject venom by stinging. After autotomy, scorpions do not defecate and can only capture small prey items. However, males can survive and mate successfully for up to eight months in the laboratory. In spite of diminished predation ability after autotomy, survival allows males to reproduce. Autotomy in Ananteris therefore appears to be an effective, adaptive, anti-predation escape mechanism.