α-Phenylacetoacetonitrile (APAAN) is one of the most important pre-precursors for amphetamine production in recent years. This assumption is based on seizure data but there is little analytical data available showing how much amphetamine really originated from APAAN. In this study, several syntheses of amphetamine following the Leuckart route were performed starting from different organic compounds including APAAN. The organic phases were analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to search for signals caused by possible APAAN markers. Three compounds were discovered, isolated, and based on the performed syntheses it was found that they are highly specific for the use of APAAN. Using mass spectra, high resolution MS and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data the compounds were characterised and identified as 2-phenyl-2-butenenitrile, 3-amino-2-phenyl-2-butenenitrile, and 4-amino-6-methyl-5-phenylpyrimidine. To investigate their significance, they were searched in data from seized amphetamine samples to determine to what extent they were present in illicitly produced amphetamine. Data of more than 580 cases from amphetamine profiling databases in Germany and the Netherlands were used for this purpose. These databases allowed analysis of the yearly occurrence of the markers going back to 2009. The markers revealed a trend that was in agreement with seizure reports and reflected an increasing use of APAAN from 2010 on. This paper presents experimental proof that APAAN is indeed the most important pre-precursor of amphetamine in recent years. It also illustrates how important it is to look for new ways to identify current trends in drug production since such trends can change within a few years.
Chemical waste from the clandestine production of amphetamine is of forensic and environmental importance due to its illegal nature which often leads to dumping into the environment. In this study, 27 aqueous amphetamine waste samples from controlled Leuckart reactions performed in Germany, the Netherlands, and Poland were characterised to increase knowledge about the chemical composition and physicochemical characteristics of such waste. Aqueous waste samples from different reaction steps were analysed to determine characteristic patterns which could be used for classification. Conductivity, pH, density, ionic load, and organic compounds were determined using different analytical methods. Conductivity values ranged from 1 to over 200 mS/cm, pH values from 0 to 14, and densities from 1.0 to 1.3 g/cm . A capillary electrophoresis method with contactless conductivity detection (CE-C D) was developed and validated to quantify chloride, sulphate, formate, ammonium, and sodium ions which were the most abundant ions in the investigated waste samples. A solid-phase extraction sample preparation was used prior to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis to determine the organic compounds. Using the characterisation data of the known samples, it was possible to assign 16 seized clandestine waste samples from an amphetamine production to the corresponding synthesis step. The data also allowed us to draw conclusions about the synthesis procedure and used chemicals. The presented data and methods could support forensic investigations by showing the probative value of synthesis waste when investigating the illegal production of amphetamine. It can also act as starting point to develop new approaches to tackle the problem of clandestine waste dumping.
US28 is a human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encoded G-protein-coupled receptor that signals in a constitutively active manner. Recently, we identified 1 [5-(4-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-hydroxypiperidin-1-yl)-2,2-diphenylpentanenitrile] as the first reported nonpeptidergic inverse agonist for a viral-encoded chemokine receptor. Interestingly, this compound is able to partially inhibit the viral entry of HIV-1. In this study we describe the synthesis of 1 and several of its analogues and unique structure-activity relationships for this first class of small-molecule ligands for the chemokine receptor US28. Moreover, the compounds have been pharmacologically characterized as inverse agonists on US28. By modification of lead structure 1, it is shown that a 4-phenylpiperidine moiety is essential for affinity and activity. Other structural features of 1 are shown to be of less importance. These compounds define the first SAR of ligands on a viral GPCR (US28) and may therefore serve as important tools to investigate the significance of US28-mediated constitutive activity during viral infection.
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