The August 2003 heat wave in France resulted in many thousands of excess deaths particularly of elderly people. Individual and environmental risk factors for death among the community-dwelling elderly were identified. We conducted a case-control survey and defined cases as people aged 65 years and older who lived at home and died from August 8 through August 13 from causes other than accident, suicide, or surgical complications. Controls were matched with cases for age, sex, and residential area. Interviewers used questionnaires to collect data. Satellite pictures provided profiles of the heat island characteristics around the homes. Lack of mobility was a major risk factor along with some pre-existing medical conditions. Housing characteristics associated with death were lack of thermal insulation and sleeping on the top floor, right under the roof. The temperature around the building was a major risk factor. Behaviour such as dressing lightly and use of cooling techniques and devices were protective factors. These findings suggest people with pre-existing medical conditions were likely to be vulnerable during heat waves and need information on how to adjust daily routines to heat waves. In the long term, building insulation and urban planning must be adapted to provide protection from possible heat waves.

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French houses [12], to the results of previous studies conducted in new dwellings and to the IAQ guideline values currently used in France. The air changes per hour (ACH) from mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR) were measured and compared to those of standard French homes [13]. The air-exhaust rates were compared to the French standards [14] for minimal airflow for dwellings according to the number of habitable rooms. The noise levels were measured, and the occupants' perceptions were evaluated with a questionnaire. 2. Materials and methods A recently developed method for assessing IAQ, occupant comfort and energy consumption was applied in this study. A detailed description of sampling and measurement techniques has been presented elsewhere [15]. A short overview of the analytical procedures and the sampling strategy is given below. 2.1. Description of the seven single-family detached houses Seven newly built, single-family detached houses in four regions of France (Centre, Pays-de-la-Loire, Ilede-France and Rhône-Alpes) were investigated in this study (Table 1). Table 1-Main characteristics of the seven new single-family detached houses investigated in this study in terms of construction, equipment and occupancy The buildings had one or two stories, and one had an attached garage (A). All houses were constructed in accordance with an energy-efficient building certification such as the French BBC-Effinergie certification or the German Passivhaus certification. Three houses were certified (A: BBC-Effinergie; C and D: Passivhaus); house B's certification process was ongoing , and the builders or owners of the other houses are not pursuing certification. Houses F and G satisfied the requirements of all 14 targets of the French High Environmental Quality Programme (HQE). The airtightness of all buildings was measured with a 4 blower-door test between 0.29 and 3.33 vol/h under 50 Pascal pressure (0.06 and 0.41 m 3 /h.m 2 under 4 Pascal pressure). The houses' annual consumption of conventional primary energy (heating, cooling, ventilation, auxiliaries, hot water production, lighting facilities) was between 46 and 79 kWh/m 2 /year. These houses were well within the requirements of the French 2005 thermal regulations (RT 2005) for buildings (airtightness less than 0.8 m 3 /h.m 2 under 4 Pa and annual consumption of conventional primary energy less than 150 kWh/m 2 /year). The houses also qualified as highly energy-efficient houses as defined by the French 2012 thermal regulation (RT 2012) because of their high airtightness (under 0.6 m 3 /h.m 2 under 4 Pa) and their theoretical low energy consumption (an annual consumption of conventional primary energy equal or less than 50 kWh/m 2 /year). All of the houses were wood frame except for house A (stone) and used mineral (A, F and G) or vegetable (B, C, D and E) insulating material. All of the houses were equipped with an MVHR system with two, three or four normal fan speeds and occasionally one boost setting. The heating systems were mostly heat pumps (A, C, D...

The aim of this study was to characterize the relationship between Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and ventilation in French classrooms. Various parameters were measured over one school week, including volatile organic compounds, aldehydes, particulate matter (PM2.5 mass concentration and number concentration), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), air temperature, and relative humidity in 51 classrooms at 17 schools. The ventilation was characterized by several indicators, such as the air exchange rate, ventilation rate (VR), and air stuffiness index (ICONE), that are linked to indoor CO2 concentration. The influences of the season (heating or non-heating), type of school (nursery or elementary), and ventilation on the IAQ were studied. Based on the minimum value of 4.2 l/s per person required by the French legislation for mechanically ventilated classrooms, 91% of the classrooms had insufficient ventilation. The VR was significantly higher in mechanically ventilated classrooms compared with naturally ventilated rooms. The correlations between IAQ and ventilation vary according to the location of the primary source of each pollutant (outdoor vs. indoor), and for an indoor source, whether it is associated with occupant activity or continuous emission.