The LHCb experiment is dedicated to precision measurements of CP violation and rare decays of B hadrons at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN (Geneva). The initial configuration and expected performance of the detector and associated systems, as established by test beam measurements and simulation studies, is described.

Antimatter was first predicted in 1931, by Dirac. Work with high-energy antiparticles is now commonplace, and anti-electrons are used regularly in the medical technique of positron emission tomography scanning. Antihydrogen, the bound state of an antiproton and a positron, has been produced at low energies at CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) since 2002. Antihydrogen is of interest for use in a precision test of nature's fundamental symmetries. The charge conjugation/parity/time reversal (CPT) theorem, a crucial part of the foundation of the standard model of elementary particles and interactions, demands that hydrogen and antihydrogen have the same spectrum. Given the current experimental precision of measurements on the hydrogen atom (about two parts in 10(14) for the frequency of the 1s-to-2s transition), subjecting antihydrogen to rigorous spectroscopic examination would constitute a compelling, model-independent test of CPT. Antihydrogen could also be used to study the gravitational behaviour of antimatter. However, so far experiments have produced antihydrogen that is not confined, precluding detailed study of its structure. Here we demonstrate trapping of antihydrogen atoms. From the interaction of about 10(7) antiprotons and 7 × 10(8) positrons, we observed 38 annihilation events consistent with the controlled release of trapped antihydrogen from our magnetic trap; the measured background is 1.4 ± 1.4 events. This result opens the door to precision measurements on anti-atoms, which can soon be subjected to the same techniques as developed for hydrogen.

Reported trapping times of magnetically confined (matter) atoms range from <1 s in the first, room temperature, traps [ 18 ] to 10 to 30 minutes in cryogenic devices [ 19,20,21,22 ]. However, antimatter atoms can annihilate on background gases. Also, the loading of our trap (i.e., anti-atom production via merging of cold plasmas) is different from that of ordinary atom traps, and the loading dynamics could adversely affect the trapping and orbit dynamics. Mechanisms exist for temporary magnetic trapping of particles (e.g., in quasi-stable trapping orbits [ 23 ], or in excited internal states [ 24 ]); such particles could be short-lived with a trapping time of a few 100 ms. Thus, it is not a priori obvious what trapping time should be expected for antihydrogen. 5In this article, we report the first systematic investigations of the characteristics of trapped antihydrogen. These studies were made possible by significant advances in our trapping techniques subsequent to Ref. [ 17 ]. These developments, including incorporation of evaporative antiproton cooling[ 25 ] into our trapping operation, and optimisation of autoresonant mixing [ 26 ], resulted in up to a factor of five increase in the number of trapped atoms per attempt. A total sample of 309 trapped antihydrogen annihilation events was studied, a large increase from the previously published 38 events.Here we report trapping of antihydrogen for 1000 s, extending earlier results [ 17 ] by nearly four orders of magnitude. Further, we have exploited the temporal and spatial resolution of our detector system to perform a detailed analysis of the antihydrogen release process, from which we infer information on the trapped antihydrogen kinetic energy distribution.The ALPHA antihydrogen trap [ 27,28 ] is comprised of the superposition of a Penning trap for antihydrogen production and a magnetic field configuration that has a three-dimensional minimum in magnitude (Fig. 1). For ground-state antihydrogen, our trap well-depth is 0.54 K (in temperature units).The large discrepancy in the energy scales between the magnetic trap depth (~50 eV), and the characteristic energy scale of the trapped plasmas (a few eV) presents a formidable challenge to trapping neutral anti-atoms. antiprotons at ~100K, with radius 0.4 mm and density 7x10 7 cm -3 is prepared for mixing with positrons.Independently, the positron plasma, accumulated in a Surko-type buffer gas accumulator [ 33 ,34 ], is transferred to the mixing region, and is also radially compressed. The magnetic trap is then energized, 6 and the positron plasma is cooled further via evaporation, resulting in a plasma with a radius of 0.8 mm and containing 1x10 6 positrons at a density of 5x10 7 cm -3 and a temperature of ~40 K. The silicon vertex detector, surrounding the mixing trap in three layers (Fig. 1 a) ]. Knowledge of annihilation positions also provides sensitivity to the antihydrogen energy distribution, as we will show.In Table 1 and Fig. 2, we present the results for a series of measurements, wherein the confinemen...

We report the application of evaporative cooling to clouds of trapped antiprotons, resulting in plasmas with measured temperature down to 9 K. We have modeled the evaporation process for charged particles using appropriate rate equations. Good agreement between experiment and theory is observed, permitting prediction of cooling efficiency in future experiments. The technique opens up new possibilities for cooling of trapped ions and is of particular interest in antiproton physics, where a precise CPT test on trapped antihydrogen is a long-standing goal.Historically, forced evaporative cooling has been successfully applied to trapped samples of neutral particles [1], and remains the only route to achieve Bose-Einstein condensation in such systems [2]. However, the technique has only found limited applications for trapped ions (at temperatures ∼ 100 eV [3]) and has never been realized in cold plasmas. Here we report the application of forced evaporative cooling to a dense (∼ 10 6 cm −3 ) cloud of trapped antiprotons, resulting in temperatures as low as 9 K; two orders of magnitude lower than any previously reported [4].The process of evaporation is driven by elastic collisions that scatter high energy particles out of the confining potential, thus decreasing the temperature of the remaining particles. For charged particles the process benefits from the long range nature of the Coulomb interaction, and compared to neutrals of similar density and temperature, the elastic collision rate is much higher, making cooling of much lower numbers and densities of particles feasible. In addition, intraspecies loss channels from inelastic collisions are non-existent. Strong coupling to the trapping fields makes precise control of the confining potential more critical for charged particles. Also, for plasmas, the self-fields can both reduce the collision rate through screening and change the effective depth of the confining potential.The ALPHA apparatus, which is designed with the intention of creating and trapping antihydrogen [5], is located at the Antiproton Decelerator (AD) at CERN [6]. It consists of a Penning-Malmberg trap for charged particles with an octupole-based magnetostatic trap for neutral atoms superimposed on the central region. For the work presented here, the magnetostatic trap was not energized and the evaporative cooling was performed in a homogeneous 1 T solenoidal field. Figure 1a shows a schematic diagram of the apparatus, with only a subset of the 20.05 mm long and 22.275 mm radius, hollow cylindrical electrodes shown. The vacuum wall is cooled using liquid helium, and the measured electrode temperature is about 7 K. The magnetic field, indicated by the arrow, is directed along the axis of cylindrical symmetry and confines the antiprotons radially: due to conservation of angular momentum, antiprotons do not readily escape in directions transverse to the magnetic field lines [7]. Parallel to the magnetic field, antiprotons are confined by electric fields generated by the electrodes.Also shown are the two ...