In mammalian oocytes DNA damage can cause chromosomal abnormalities that potentially lead to infertility and developmental disorders. However, there is little known about the response of oocytes to DNA damage. Here we find that oocytes with DNA damage arrest at metaphase of the first meiosis (MI). The MI arrest is induced by the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) because inhibiting the SAC overrides the DNA damage-induced MI arrest. Furthermore, this MI checkpoint is compromised in oocytes from aged mice. These data lead us to propose that the SAC is a major gatekeeper preventing the progression of oocytes harbouring DNA damage. The SAC therefore acts to integrate protection against both aneuploidy and DNA damage by preventing production of abnormal mature oocytes and subsequent embryos. Finally, we suggest escaping this DNA damage checkpoint in maternal ageing may be one of the causes of increased chromosome anomalies in oocytes and embryos from older mothers.

SummaryThe first female meiotic division (MI) is uniquely prone to chromosome segregation errors through non-disjunction, resulting in trisomies and early pregnancy loss1. Here, we show a fundamental difference in the control of mammalian meiosis which may underlie such susceptibility. It involved a reversal in the well-established timing of activation of the AnaphasePromoting Complex (APC)2, 3 by its co-activators cdc20 and cdh1. APC cdh1 was active first, during prometaphase I, and was needed in order to allow homologue congression, since loss of cdh1 speeded up MI, leading to premature chromosome segregation and a non-disjunction phenotype. APC cdh1 targeted cdc20 for degradation but not securin and cyclin B1. These were degraded later in MI through APC cdc20 , making cdc20 re-synthesis essential for successful meiotic progression. The switch from APC cdh1 to APC cdc20 activity was controlled by increasing CDK1 and cdh1 loss. These findings demonstrate a fundamentally different mechanism of control for the first meiotic division in mammalian oocytes not observed in meioses of other species.The E3 ligase activity of the Anaphase-Promoting Factor (APC) bound to its co-activator cdh1 (APC cdh1 ) is commonly associated with late M-and early G1-phases of the cell cycle, where it contributes to M-phase exit by degradation of mitotic proteins, while simultaneously preventing precocious DNA replication3-6. APC cdh1 activity is also observed in germinal vesicle stage (GV) mouse oocytes, equivalent to late G2, where it contributes to cyclin B1 degradation and as such is required for maintenance of GV arrest7, 8.We wanted to establish if cdh1 had any role in meiosis I (MI) after GV breakdown (GVB), independent of its role in maintaining GV arrest. Therefore, we examined the ability of oocytes to progress through MI following microinjection with a cdh1 antisense morpholino (cdh1 MO ). Culture in milrinone-containing medium for 24 h following cdh1 MO microinjection is sufficient to reduce cdh1 levels by >90% (hereafter 'cdh1 knockdown oocytes') but maintain GV arrest in the majority of oocytes, with longer term culture (48h) needed to promote GVB7. In cdh1 knockdown oocytes, which maintained arrest over 24 h, we found that progression through MI was accelerated following milrinone wash-out. Oocytes extruded a polar body (PB), which forms on completion of MI, 1.5 h earlier than non-injected oocytes (Fig 1a). This effect was attributed specifically to loss of cdh1, since it Correspondence should be addressed to KTJ. (email: k.t.jones@ncl.ac.uk). AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS K.T.J. directed the work. A.R. and S.M. performed most the experiments; with HY.C making the initial observations on the effects of the cdh1 MO , I.N. performing some of the Westerns, and M.L. making some of the constructs. KTJ wrote the paper in consultation with A.R. and S.M. COMPETING FINANCIAL INTERESTSThe authors declare no competing financial interests. was not observed in mock cdh1 depleted oocytes through addition of a 5-base-mismatch cdh1 morpholino (5...

Mammalian eggs remain arrested at metaphase of the second meiotic division (metII) for an indeterminate time before fertilization. During this period, which can last several hours, the continued attachment of sister chromatids is thought to be achieved by inhibition of the protease separase. Separase is known to be inhibited by binding either securin or Maturation (M-Phase)-Promoting Factor, a heterodimer of CDK1/cyclin B1. However, the relative contribution of securin and CDK/cyclin B1 to sister chromatid attachment during metII arrest has not been assessed. Although there are conditions in which either CDK1/cyclinB1 activity or securin can prevent sister chromatid disjunction, principally by overexpression of non-degradable cyclin B1 or securin, we find here that separase activity is primarily regulated by securin and not CDK1/cyclin B1. Thus the CDK1 inhibitor roscovitine and an antibody we designed to block the interaction of CDK1/cyclin B1 with separase, both failed to induce sister disjunction. In contrast, securin morpholino knockdown specifically induced loss of sister attachment, that could be restored by securin cRNA rescue. During metII arrest separase appears primarily regulated by securin binding, not CDK1/cyclin B1.

Sister chromatid attachment during meiosis II (MII) is maintained by securin-mediated inhibition of separase. In maternal ageing, oocytes show increased inter-sister kinetochore distance and premature sister chromatid separation (PSCS), suggesting aberrant separase activity. Here, we find that MII oocytes from aged mice have less securin than oocytes from young mice and that this reduction is mediated by increased destruction by the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) during meiosis I (MI) exit. Inhibition of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) kinase, Mps1, during MI exit in young oocytes replicates this phenotype. Further, over-expression of securin or Mps1 protects against the age-related increase in inter-sister kinetochore distance and PSCS. These findings show that maternal ageing compromises the oocyte SAC–APC/C axis leading to a decrease in securin that ultimately causes sister chromatid cohesion loss. Manipulating this axis and/or increasing securin may provide novel therapeutic approaches to alleviating the risk of oocyte aneuploidy in maternal ageing.