Refugee research to date has predominantly focused on factors that make refugees more vulnerable for developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and /or psychological distress. Few papers have studied potential protective factors such as resilience. A targeted non-random sample of Iraqi refugees (n=75) and a control group of non-Iraqi Arab immigrants (n=53) were recruited from a number of Iraqi/Arab community institutions in Michigan to complete a questionnaire that included measures for psychological distress, PTSD symptoms, exposure to trauma, and resilience. Refugees reported significantly more PTSD symptoms (T-test, p<.01) and psychological distress (p<.05) compared to immigrants. There was no difference in resilience between the two groups. In linear regression, pre-migration exposure to violence was a significant predictor of psychological distress (p<.01) and PTSD symptoms (p<.01). After controlling for migrant status and violence exposure, resilience was a significant inverse predictor of psychological distress (p<.001) but not of PTSD. Resilience is associated with less trauma-related psychological distress and should be considered in assessing risk and protective factors among victims of war-related violence.

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COVID-19 is a new type of trauma that has never been conceptually or empirically analyzed in our discipline. This study aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 as traumatic stress on mental health after controlling for individuals’ previous stressors and traumas. We utilized a sample of (N = 1374) adults from seven Arab countries. We used an anonymous online questionnaire that included measures for COVID-19 traumatic stress, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, and cumulative stressors and traumas. We conducted hierarchical multiple regression, with posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety as dependent variables. In the first step, in each analysis, we entered the country, gender, age, religion, education, and income as independent variables (Kira, Traumatology 7(2):73–86, 2001; Kira, Torture, 14:38–44, 2004; Kira, Traumatology, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000305). In the second step, we entered cumulative stressors and traumas as an independent variable. In the third step, we entered either COVID-19 traumatic stressors or one of its subtypes (fears of infection, economic, and lockdown) as an independent variable. Finally, we conducted structural equation modeling with PTSD, depression, and anxiety as predictors of the latent variable mental health and COVID-19 as the independent variable. Results indicated that COVID-19 traumatic stressors, and each of its three subtypes, were unique predictors of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Thus, COVID-19 is a new type of traumatic stress that has serious mental health effects. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11469-021-00577-0.

There is great potential for distraction of public health workers during an emergent event if they are not prepared at home and have concern for family members. At-home preparedness training efforts that emphasize what should be done and why are likely to have limited impact on changing behavior. Strategies that ensure that small steps are taken are likely to be more successful.

To understand how the COVID-19 pandemic is disproportionately affecting minorities' victims of discrimination, we examined its impact as traumatic stress, coupled with intersected discriminations, on socioeconomic status and well-being. We used previously collected data from 1,374 participants from seven Arab countries. The data included measures of COVID-19 traumatic stress, collective identity trauma (intersected discrimination), socioeconomic status, well-being, existential status and death anxieties, posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and general anxiety. We analyzed the data using path analysis and multigroup invariance. Results indicated that COVID-19 traumatic stress coupled with collective identity traumas (intersected discrimination) increased existential status and death anxieties and contributed significantly to lower social status and reduced well-being, and increased posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression. The conclusion is that COVID-19 creates a vicious cycle, with disparities/inequalities increasing infection and death from COVID-19, and COVID-19 increasing disparities/inequalities further. We found that these relationships' path model is strictly invariant across gender and strongly invariant across the country groups tested. We discussed the conceptual, clinical, and social justice implications and limitations of the study.