Background: The menstrual cycle in women is the main indicator of their reproductive health which is affected by the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. This review aims to summarize the effects of the COVID-19 infection and the global pandemic on the menstrual health of women.
Methods:The literature search was conducted in PubMed, Cochrane library, and Google Scholar using keywords "COVID-19," "Menstrual Cycle," "Menstrual Cycle Irregularities," "Amenorrhea," "Polymenorrhea," and "Dysmenorrhea." The articles were selected according to the following inclusion criteria: (i) cross-sectional studies, (ii) cohort studies, (iii) surveys, and (iv) other observational studies observing the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection or COVID-19 pandemic on menstrual health of women. Exclusion criteria included: case reports, gray literature, and website articles regarding menstrual health.Results: A total of 30,510 articles were shortlisted after a comprehensive search.Sixteen articles were included out of which 13 studies investigated the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the menstrual cycle while 3 evaluated the possible effects of COVID-19 infection on the menstrual health of women. Menstrual disorders or irregularities were a more common finding during the pandemic as compared to before (p = 0.008). Women affected by pandemic-related stress were more prone to changes in the duration of their menses (p = 0.0008), reported heavier bleeding (p = 0.028), and increased incidence of painful periods (p < 0.0001). COVID-19 infected women also reported changes in their menstrual cycle including irregular menstruation, increased symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, and infrequent menstruation.Conclusions: Women suffering from COVID-19 infection or pandemic-associated stress and anxiety were more likely to experience irregular menstruation, dysmenorrhea,
Background:
This meta-analysis aimed to pool all the available data to provide a well-powered assessment of the role of maternal Vitamin D levels in developing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) because already published studies evaluating this association are small in sample size and yielded conflicting findings.
Material and Methods:
A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies was performed. We searched electronic databases (PubMed and Cochrane Central) from inception to April 2021 for published and unpublished observational studies that determined the association between the reduction of Vitamin D levels and the risk of developing GDM in pregnant women. Results from studies were pooled as mean ± standard deviation (SD) and odds ratios (OR) using the random-effects model.
Results:
Forty-four studies, consisting of 37,838 pregnant women were included in this meta-analysis. Dichotomous studies showed a significant association between maternal Vitamin D deficiency and increased risk of GDM (OR = 1.38; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.21-1.57;
P
< 0.00001). Studies with continuous data also showed a significant association between maternal Vitamin D deficiency and the risk of developing GDM (weighted mean difference (WMD): –5.14 nmol/L, 95% CI = –6.28 to -4.00;
P <
0.00001). Moderate heterogeneity was also detected.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, all studies demonstrated that lower levels of maternal serum Vitamin D were associated with a higher risk of developing GDM in pregnancy.
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