We report a novel polyester material generated from readily available biobased 1,18‐octadecanedicarboxylic acid and ethylene glycol possesses a polyethylene‐like solid‐state structure and also tensile properties similar to high density polyethylene (HDPE). Despite its crystallinity, high melting point (Tm=96 °C) and hydrophobic nature, polyester‐2,18 is subject to rapid and complete hydrolytic degradation in in vitro assays with isolated naturally occurring enzymes. Under industrial composting conditions (ISO standard 14855‐1) the material is biodegraded with mineralization above 95 % within two months. Reference studies with polyester‐18,18 (Tm=99 °C) reveal a strong impact of the nature of the diol repeating unit on degradation rates, possibly related to the density of ester groups in the amorphous phase. Depolymerization by methanolysis indicates suitability for closed‐loop recycling.
To achieve a sustainable circular economy, polymer production must start transitioning to recycled and biobased feedstock and accomplish CO2 emission neutrality. This is not only true for structural polymers, such as in packaging or engineering applications, but also for functional polymers in liquid formulations, such as adhesives, lubricants, thickeners or dispersants. At their end of life, polymers must be either collected and recycled via a technical pathway, or be biodegradable if they are not collectable. Advances in polymer chemistry and applications, aided by computational material science, open the way to addressing these issues comprehensively by designing for recyclability and biodegradability. This Review explores how scientific progress, together with emerging regulatory frameworks, societal expectations and economic boundary conditions, paint pathways for the transformation towards a circular economy of polymers.
The pollution of the natural environment, especially the world's oceans, with conventional plastic is of major concern. Biodegradable plastics are an emerging market bringing along potential chances and risks. The fate of these materials in the environment and their possible effects on organisms and ecosystems has rarely been studied systematically and is not well understood. For the marine environment, reliable field test methods and standards for assessing and certifying biodegradation to bridge laboratory respirometric data are lacking. In this work we present newly developed field tests to assess the performance of (biodegradable) plastics under natural marine conditions. These methods were successfully applied and validated in three coastal habitats (eulittoral, benthic and pelagic) and two climate zones (Mediterranean Sea and tropical Southeast Asia). Additionally, a stand-alone mesocosm test system which integrated all three habitats in one technical system at 400-L scale independent from running seawater is presented as a methodological bridge. Films of polyhydroxyalkanoate copolymer (PHA) and low density polyethylene (LD-PE) were used to validate the tests. While LD-PE remained intact, PHA disintegrated to a varying degree depending on the habitat and the climate zone. Together with the existing laboratory standard test methods, the field and mesocosm test systems presented in this work provide a 3tier testing scheme for the reliable assessment of the biodegradation of (biodegradable) plastic in the marine environment. This toolset of tests can be adapted to other aquatic ecosystems.
16The pollution of the natural environment, especially the world's oceans, with 17 conventional plastic is of major concern. Biodegradable plastics are an emerging 18 market bringing along potential chances and risks. The fate of these materials in the 19 environment and their possible effects on organisms and ecosystems has rarely been 20 studied systematically and is not well understood. For the marine environment, reliable 21 field test methods and standards for assessing and certifying biodegradation are 22 lacking. In this work we present newly developed field tests to assess the performance 23 of biodegradable plastics under natural marine conditions. These methods were 24 successfully applied and validated in three coastal habitats (eulittoral, benthic and polyethylene (LD-PE) were used to validate the systems. While LD-PE remained intact, 31PHA disintegrated with speed depending on the habitat and the climate zone. Together 32 with the existing laboratory standard test methods, the field and mesocosm test 33 systems presented in this work provide a 3-tier testing scheme for the reliable 34 assessment of the biodegradation of (biodegradable) plastic in the marine 35 environment. This toolset of tests can be adapted to other aquatic ecosystems. 36 37 the marine environment is increasing (e.g. [11][12][13][14][15]), however the comparison of the 70 results remains difficult. In-situ experimentation under sometimes harsh marine 71 conditions involves several risks including theft, sabotage, conflict with other activities 72 like fisheries and boating, and natural forces such as strong currents and wave action. 73Loss of samples by anthropogenic impact or natural forces [13, 15,16] could 74 substantially jeopardize the outcome of experiments. Also, most studies have only 75 tested in one habitat (e.g. [16]) or were too short-termed (e.g. [12]) to produce reliable 76 results on the full biodegradation of a certain material under marine conditions. Many 77 studies also lack the application of a positive control to assess the general microbial 78 activity under the given test conditions and the potential of the microbial community to 79 biodegrade organic materials within the experimentation time at all (e. g. [17]). 80The main goal of this study, partly conducted during the EU project Open-Bio [18, 19, 81 20], was to develop robust, reliable in-situ test systems to assess the performance of 82 biodegradable plastic materials under natural marine conditions that: (a) withstand 83 natural forces for extended times of exposure, (b) allow for testing in different marine 84 habitats without the loss of samples and (c) generate samples ideally deteriorated by 85 mere biological processes rather than physical destruction. Additionally, the aim was 86 to create a basis for an EN or ISO standard test method. 87So far, standard test methods for in-situ testing of plastic materials only exist for the 88 sea surface [21] and are now under development for the seafloor and beach scenario 89[22]. For laboratory testing se...
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