We present observational estimates of Ekman pumping in the Beaufort Gyre region. Averaged over the Canada Basin, the results show a 2003–14 average of 2.3 m yr−1 downward with strong seasonal and interannual variability superimposed: monthly and yearly means range from 30 m yr−1 downward to 10 m yr−1 upward. A clear, seasonal cycle is evident with intense downwelling in autumn and upwelling during the winter months, despite the wind forcing being downwelling favorable year-round. Wintertime upwelling is associated with friction between the large-scale Beaufort Gyre ocean circulation and the surface ice pack and contrasts with previous estimates of yearlong downwelling; as a consequence, the yearly cumulative Ekman pumping over the gyre is significantly reduced. The spatial distribution of Ekman pumping is also modified, with the Beaufort Gyre region showing alternating, moderate upwelling and downwelling, while a more intense, yearlong downwelling averaging 18 m yr−1 is identified in the northern Chukchi Sea region. Implications of the results for understanding Arctic Ocean dynamics and change are discussed.

The Beaufort Gyre is a key circulation system of the Arctic Ocean and its main reservoir of freshwater. Freshwater storage and release affects Arctic sea ice cover, as well as North Atlantic and global climate. We describe a mechanism that is fundamental to the dynamics of the gyre, namely, the ice-ocean stress governor. Wind blows over the ice, and the ice drags the ocean. But as the gyre spins up, currents catch the ice up and turn off the surface stress. This governor sets the basic properties of the gyre, such as its depth, freshwater content, and strength. Analytical and numerical modeling is employed to contrast the equilibration processes in an ice-covered versus ice-free gyre. We argue that as the Arctic warms, reduced sea ice extent and more mobile ice will result in a deeper and faster Beaufort Gyre, accumulating more freshwater that will be released by Ekman upwelling or baroclinic instability. Plain Language SummaryThe Beaufort Gyre, located north of Alaska and Canada, is a key circulation system of the Arctic Ocean. Changes in its depth and circulation influence the evolution of the Arctic sea ice cover, the North Atlantic circulation, and the global climate. The gyre is driven by persistent, ice-mediated winds, accumulating surface freshwater toward the center, deepening the gyre, and spinning up its currents. We describe a mechanism, dubbed here the ice-ocean governor, in which the interaction of surface currents with the ice regulates the depth of the Beaufort Gyre: The spinning up of the gyre reduces the relative speed between the ocean and the ice, and hence the freshwater accumulation. This competes with, and we argue is more important than, the release of freshwater by flow instability, which moves water from the center toward the periphery. In the current climate the depth and speed of the Beaufort Gyre are mainly set by the governor, but this may change in a warming world where reduced ice cover will render the ice-ocean governor less effective. The resulting deeper, swifter gyre will likely exhibit more variability in its freshwater storage and flow speeds.

Using Ekman pumping rates mediated by sea ice in the Arctic Ocean's Beaufort Gyre (BG), the magnitude of lateral eddy diffusivities required to balance downward pumping is inferred. In this limit-that of vanishing residual-mean circulation-eddy-induced upwelling exactly balances downward pumping. The implied eddy diffusivity varies spatially and decays with depth, with values of 50-400 m 2 /s. Eddy diffusivity estimated using mixing length theory applied to BG mooring data exhibits a similar decay with depth and range of values from 100 m 2 /s to more than 600 m 2 /s. We conclude that eddy diffusivities in the BG are likely large enough to balance downward Ekman pumping, arresting the deepening of the gyre and suggesting that eddies play a zero-order role in buoyancy and freshwater budgets of the BG.

Based on analysis of observational data it has been suggested that a negative feedback of ice–ocean stress coupling may limit freshwater accumulation in the Beaufort Gyre (BG). In this paper we explore how this feedback can significantly contribute to BG stabilization in an anticyclonic wind regime. We use an ice–ocean model and turn on and off the feedback in simulations to elucidate the role of the feedback. When a persistent anticyclonic wind anomaly is applied over the BG, liquid freshwater content (FWC) increases because of enhanced Ekman downwelling. As a consequence, ocean surface geostrophic currents speed up. However, the spinup of sea ice is weaker than the acceleration of surface geostrophic currents during wintertime, because of strong sea ice internal stress when ice concentration is high and ice is thick. This leads to cyclonic anomalies in the ice–ocean relative velocity and stress over the BG. The resultant seasonal Ekman upwelling anomaly reduces freshwater accumulation by about 1/4 as compared to a simulation with the negative feedback turned off in a control experiment, with a reduction range of 1/10–1/3 in all experiments conducted. We show that the feedback is more effective when the model’s mesoscale eddy diffusivity is smaller or when sea ice internal stress is stronger. Finally, we argue that the ice–ocean stress feedback may become less significant as the Arctic warms and sea ice declines.

Observations of ocean currents in the Arctic interior show a curious, and hitherto unexplained, vertical and temporal distribution of mesoscale activity. A marked seasonal cycle is found close to the surface: strong eddy activity during summer, observed from both satellites and moorings, is followed by very quiet winters. In contrast, subsurface eddies persist all year long within the deeper halocline and below. Informed by baroclinic instability analysis, we explore the origin and evolution of mesoscale eddies in the seasonally ice-covered interior Arctic Ocean. We find that the surface seasonal cycle is controlled by friction with sea ice, dissipating existing eddies and preventing the growth of new ones. In contrast, subsurface eddies, enabled by interior potential vorticity gradients and shielded by a strong stratification at a depth of approximately 50 m, can grow independently of the presence of sea ice. A high-resolution pan-Arctic ocean model confirms that the interior Arctic basin is baroclinically unstable all year long at depth. We address possible implications for the transport of water masses between the margins and the interior of the Arctic basin, and for climate models’ ability to capture the fundamental difference in mesoscale activity between ice-covered and ice-free regions.