Environmental
friendly sodium alginate (SA) cannot be used as a
binder in aqueous batteries due to its high solubility in water. A
water-insoluble polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) binder has been widely
applied for an aqueous battery, in which the toxic and expensive organic
solvent of N-methy-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) is required
during the coating process. Herein, we report that the water-soluble
SA can be utilized as a binder in aqueous Zn batteries because SA
could cross-link with the Zn2+ ion to form a water-insoluble
and mechanically super strong binder for electrodes. Aqueous Zn||LiFePO4 cells are assembled to demonstrate the performance of the
SA binder for LiFePO4 cathodes. Due to the high adhesion
strength of cross-linked Zn-SA, LiFePO4 with the SA binder
displays a high capacity retention of 93.7% with a high Coulombic
efficiency of nearly 100% after 100 cycles at a 0.2 C rate, while
the capacity of LiFePO4 with the PVDF binder quickly decays
to 84.7% after 100 cycles at 0.2 C. In addition, the LiFePO4 cathode with the SA binder also has smaller redox polarization,
faster ion diffusion rate, and more favorable electrochemical kinetics
than that with the PVDF binder.
Heterodera avenae is one of the most important plant pathogens and causes vast losses in cereal crops. As a sedentary endoparasitic nematode, H. avenae secretes effectors that modify plant defenses and promote its biotrophic infection of its hosts. However, the number of effectors involved in the interaction between H. avenae and host defenses remains unclear. Here, we report the identification of putative effectors in H. avenae that regulate plant defenses on a large scale. Our results showed that 78 of the 95 putative effectors suppressed programmed cell death (PCD) triggered by BAX and that 7 of the putative effectors themselves caused cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana. Among the cell-death-inducing effectors, three were found to be dependent on their specific domains to trigger cell death and to be expressed in esophageal gland cells by in situ hybridization. Ten candidate effectors that suppressed BAX-triggered PCD also suppressed PCD triggered by the elicitor PsojNIP and at least one R-protein/cognate effector pair, suggesting that they are active in suppressing both pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Notably, with the exception of isotig16060, these putative effectors could also suppress PCD triggered by cell-death-inducing effectors from H. avenae, indicating that those effectors may cooperate to promote nematode parasitism. Collectively, our results indicate that the majority of the tested effectors of H. avenae may play important roles in suppressing cell death induced by different elicitors in N. benthamiana.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.