Background Very-low-birth-weight (VLBW, <1500 g birth weight) infants are at high risk for both early- and late-onset sepsis. Prior studies have observed a predominance of gram-negative organisms as a cause of early-onset sepsis and gram-positive organisms as a cause of late-onset sepsis. These reports are limited to large, academic neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) and may not reflect findings in other units. The purpose of this study was to determine the risk factors for sepsis, the causative organisms, and mortality following infection in a large and diverse sample of NICUs. Methods We analyzed the results of all cultures obtained from VLBW infants admitted to 313 NICUs from 1997 to 2010. Results Over 108,000 VLBW infants were admitted during the study period. Early-onset sepsis occurred in 1032 infants, and late-onset sepsis occurred in 12,204 infants. Gram-negative organisms were the most commonly isolated pathogens in early-onset sepsis, and gram-positive organisms were most commonly isolated in late-onset sepsis. Early- and late-onset sepsis were associated with increased risk of death controlling for other confounders (odds ratio 1.45 [95% confidence interval 1.21, 1.73], and OR 1.30 [95% CI 1.21, 1.40], respectively). Conclusions This is the largest report of sepsis in VLBW infants to date. Incidence for early-onset sepsis and late-onset sepsis has changed little over this 14-year period, and overall mortality in VLBW infants with early- and late-onset sepsis is higher than in infants with negative cultures.

Model-based simulations show that in newborns, including preterms, infants and children under the age of 3 years, a loading dose in microg/kg and a maintenance dose expressed in microg/kg1.5/h, with a 50% reduction of the maintenance dose in newborns younger than 10 days, results in a narrow range of morphine and metabolite serum concentrations throughout the studied age range. Future pharmacodynamic investigations are needed to reveal target concentrations in this population, after which final dosing recommendations can be made.

The aim of this study was to develop a population pharmacokinetic model of tacrolimus in pediatric kidney transplant patients, identify factors that explain variability, and determine dosage regimens. Pharmacokinetic samples were collected from 50 de novo pediatric kidney transplant patients (age 2-18 years) who were on tacrolimus treatment. Population pharmacokinetic analysis of tacrolimus was performed using NONMEM, and the impact of variables (demographic and clinical factors, and CYP3A4-A5, ABCB1, and ABCC2 polymorphisms) was tested. The pharmacokinetic data were described by a two-compartment model that incorporated first-order absorption and lag time. The apparent oral clearance (CL/F) was significantly related to body weight (allometric scaling); in addition, it was higher in patients with low hematocrit levels and lower in patients with CYP3A5*3/*3. The population pharmacokinetic-pharmacogenetic model developed in de novo pediatric kidney transplant patients demonstrated that, in children, tacrolimus dosage should be based on weight, hematocrit levels, and CYP3A5 polymorphism. Individualization of therapy will enable the optimization of tacrolimus exposure, with resultant beneficial effects on kidney function in the initial post-transplantation period.

Current data on mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) suggest that there is a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship between the mycophenolic acid (MPA) area under the curve (AUC) during treatment and both the risk of acute rejection and the occurrence of side effects. The aim of this study was to characterize the population pharmacokinetics of MPA in kidney transplant patients between the ages of 2 and 21 years and to propose a limited sampling strategy to estimate individual MPA AUCs. Forty-one patients received long-term oral MMF continuous therapy as part of a triple immunosuppressive regimen, which also included cyclosporine or tacrolimus (n=3) and corticosteroids. Therapy was initiated at a dose of 600 mg/m twice daily. The population parameters were calculated from an initial group of 32 patients. The data were analyzed by nonlinear mixed-effect modeling using a 2-compartment structural model with first-order absorption and a lag time. The interindividual variability in the initial volume of distribution was partially explained by the fact that this parameter was weight-dependent. Fifteen concentration-time profiles from 13 patients were used to evaluate the predictive performance of the Bayesian approach and to devise a limited sampling strategy. The protocol, involving two sampling times, 1 and 4 hours after oral administration, allows the precise and accurate determination of MPA AUCs (bias -0.9 microg.h/mL; precision 6.02 microg.h/mL). The results of this study combine the relationships between the pharmacokinetic parameters of MPA and patient covariates, which may be useful for dose adjustment, with a convenient sampling procedure that may aid in optimizing pediatric patient care.

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT• The pharmacogenetic polymorphisms of both TPMT and ITPA are associated with individual variability in 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) intracellular metabolism.• The balance between red blood cell (RBC) 6-thioguanine nucleotide (6TGN) and 6-methylated metabolite (6-MMPN) concentrations has an important impact on efficacy in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia.• Hepatotoxicity is a frequent complication of the association 6-MP and methotrexate during maintenance therapy. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS• RBC 6-TGN concentrations are dependant on TPMT genotype and age, while RBC 6-MMPN concentrations depend on TPMT and ITPA polymorphisms. • Children aged 6 years or less had lower RBC 6-TGN concentrations during maintenance therapy, demonstrating an age effect on 6-MP intracellular metabolism.• Hepatotoxicity is a frequent complication of the association of 6-MP and methotrexate. A 6-MMPN threshold of 5000 pmol/8 ¥ 10 8 RBC was associated with an increased risk of hepatotoxicity. AIMS6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) is used in the treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). Its red blood cell (RBC) metabolite concentrations (6-thioguanine [6-TGN] and 6-methylmercaptopurine nucleotides ) are related to drug response. We investigated the impact of non-genetic covariates and pharmacogenetic polymorphisms affecting thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) and inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase (ITPA) on 6-MP metabolism and response. METHODSSixty-six children with ALL treated according to EORTC 58951 protocol were included in this study. Six patients had a heterozygous genotype for the most common TPMT polymorphisms, nine for ITPA 94 C > A and 17 for ITPA IVS2 + 21 A > C. 6-MP metabolites concentrations were analyzed by mixed model analysis. RESULTSDuring maintenance, steady-state RBC 6-TGN concentrations were lower in patients aged 6 years or younger ( CONCLUSIONIn this study, age and both TPMT and ITPA genotypes influenced 6-MP metabolism. High 6-MMPN was associated with hepatotoxicity. These pharmacological tools should be used to monitor ALL treatment in children.

The objective was to develop a population pharmacokinetic-pharmacogenetic model of mycophenolic acid following administration of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) in de novo pediatric renal-transplant patients and identify factors that explain variability. The pharmacokinetic samples were collected from 89 de novo pediatric renal-transplant patients treated with MMF and studied during the first 60 postoperative days. All patients were genotyped for UGT1A8-A9, UGT2B7, and ABCC2. Population pharmacokinetic analysis was performed with the NONMEM and was validated using bootstrap visual predictive check. The pharmacokinetic data were best described by a 2-compartment model with Erlang distribution to describe the absorption phase. The covariate analysis identified body weight as an individual factor influencing central volume of distribution and concomitant immunosuppressive medication and identified body weight and UGT2B7 802C>T genotype as individual factors influencing apparent oral clearance (CL/F) of MMF. CL/F in cyclosporine-MMF-treated patients was 33% higher than in tacrolimus-MMF-treated patients. The CL/F was significantly lower in patients with UGT2B7 802 C/C genotype compared with patients with UGT2B7 802 C/T and 802T/T genotypes, and this effect was independent of concomitant immunosuppressive medication or body weight. The population pharmacokinetic-pharmacogenetic model of mycophenolic acid was validated. Body weight, concomitant medication, and UGT2B7 genotype contribute significantly to the interindividual variability of MMF disposition in pediatric renal-transplant patients.

A patient-tailored optimised dosing regimen should be used routinely to individualise vancomycin continuous infusion therapy in neonates.

ABSTRACT:Cytochromes P450 3A (CYP3A) and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) are mainly located in enterocytes and hepatocytes. The CYP3A/P-gp system contributes to the first-pass metabolism of many drugs, resulting in a limited bioavailability. During the neonatal period, a shift between CYP3A7, the fetal form, and CYP3A4 occurs in the liver, but data on the expression of the CYP3A/P-gp complex in the intestine are very limited. A total of 59 normal duodenal biopsies from white children aged 1 month to 17 years were studied. Localization of the proteins by immunohistochemistry analysis was performed using a polyclonal antibody, Nuage anti-CYP3A, and a monoclonal antibody, C494 anti-P-gp. The mRNA quantification was performed using highly specific real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Villin mRNA quantification was used for normalization. CYP3A protein was detected in all enterocytes in the samples from patients over 6 months of age, whereas it was not in younger samples. P-gp protein was expressed at the apical and upper lateral surfaces of the enterocytes. CYP3A isoforms and P-gp mRNA levels were highly variable. CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 mRNA levels were high during the first year of life and decreased with age, whereas CYP3A7 was detected at a low level in 64% of samples, whatever the age. P-gp mRNA expression level was also highly variable. Our results showed that neonates and infants had a significant expression of CYP3A and P-gp mRNA in the intestine, suggesting a different maturation profile of CYP3A and P-gp with age in the liver and the intestine.