Twenty percent of the familial form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is caused by mutations in the Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase gene (SOD1) through the gain of a toxic function. The nature of this toxic function of mutant SOD1 has remained largely unknown. Here we show that WT SOD1 not only hastens onset of the ALS phenotype but can also convert an unaffected phenotype to an ALS phenotype in mutant SOD1 transgenic mouse models. Further analyses of the single-and double-transgenic mice revealed that conversion of mutant SOD1 from a soluble form to an aggregated and detergent-insoluble form was associated with development of the ALS phenotype in transgenic mice. Conversion of WT SOD1 from a soluble form to an aggregated and insoluble form also correlates with exacerbation of the disease or conversion to a disease phenotype in double-transgenic mice. This conversion, observed in the mitochondrial fraction of the spinal cord, involved formation of insoluble SOD1 dimers and multimers that are crosslinked through intermolecular disulfide bonds via oxidation of cysteine residues in SOD1. Our data thus show a molecular mechanism by which SOD1, an important protein in cellular defense against free radicals, is converted to aggregated and apparently ALS-associated toxic dimers and multimers by redox processes. These findings provide evidence of direct links among oxidation, protein aggregation, mitochondrial damage, and SOD1-mediated ALS, with possible applications to the aging process and other late-onset neurodegenerative disorders. Importantly, rational therapy based on these observations can now be developed and tested.crosslinked ͉ disulfide bonds ͉ oxidation ͉ protein aggregation ͉ neurodegeneration A myotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive paralytic disorder caused by degeneration of the motor neurons in brain and spinal cord (1). Most of the ALS cases are sporadic, with Ϸ5-10% being familial. The progressive paralysis in ALS usually affects respiratory function, leading to ventilatory failure and death; 50% of patients die within 3 years of onset of symptoms, and 90% die within 5 years. The juvenile form of ALS usually has a prolonged course of two to four decades. There is no known effective treatment for this fatal disease, although marginal delay in mortality has been noted with the drug riluzole (2).Familial ALS can be transmitted as either a dominant or a recessive trait. We and our collaborators have previously shown that mutations in the Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase gene (SOD1) are associated with Ϸ20% of familial ALS cases (3, 4). The pathogenic mechanisms underlying this disease are still largely unknown. Most, but not all, transgenic mice overexpressing ALS-associated SOD1 mutants develop ALS-like disease (5), and transgenic mice overexpressing human WT SOD1 (hwtSOD1) or SOD1-deficient mice do not develop ALS-like disease (5, 6), suggesting that mutant SOD1 requires a threshold of expression to cause the disease through the gain of a toxic property.Thus far, Ͼ100 mutations, widely distrib...

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neuromuscular disorder characterized by degeneration of motor neurons and atrophy of skeletal muscle. Mutations in the superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene are linked to 20% cases of inherited ALS. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been implicated in the pathogenic process, but how it contributes to muscle degeneration of ALS is not known. Here we identify a specific deficit in the cellular physiology of skeletal muscle derived from an ALS mouse model (G93A) with transgenic overexpression of the human SOD1 G93A mutant. The G93A skeletal muscle fibers display localized loss of mitochondrial inner membrane potential in fiber segments near the neuromuscular junction. These defects occur in young G93A mice prior to disease onset. Fiber segments with depolarized mitochondria show greater osmotic stress-induced Ca 2؉ release activity, which can include propagating Ca 2؉ waves. These Ca 2؉ waves are confined to regions of depolarized mitochondria and stop propagating shortly upon entering the regions of normal, polarized mitochondria. Uncoupling of mitochondrial membrane potential with FCCP or inhibition of mitochondrial Ca 2؉ uptake by Ru360 lead to cell-wide propagation of such Ca 2؉ release events. Our data reveal that mitochondria regulate Ca 2؉ signaling in skeletal muscle, and loss of this capacity may contribute to the progression of muscle atrophy in ALS.

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Mutations in the gene encoding ubiquilin2 (UBQLN2) cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal type of dementia, or both. However, the molecular mechanisms are unknown. Here, we show that ALS/dementia-linked UBQLN2 P497H transgenic mice develop neuronal pathology with ubiquilin2/ubiquitin/p62-positive inclusions in the brain, especially in the hippocampus, recapitulating several key pathological features of dementia observed in human patients with UBQLN2 mutations. A major feature of the ubiquilin2-related pathology in these mice, and reminiscent of human disease, is a dendritic spinopathy with protein aggregation in the dendritic spines and an associated decrease in dendritic spine density and synaptic dysfunction. Finally, we show that the protein inclusions in the dendritic spines are composed of several components of the proteasome machinery, including Ub G76V -GFP, a representative ubiquitinated protein substrate that is accumulated in the transgenic mice. Our data, therefore, directly link impaired protein degradation to inclusion formation that is associated with synaptic dysfunction and cognitive deficits. These data imply a convergent molecular pathway involving synaptic protein recycling that may also be involved in other neurodegenerative disorders, with implications for development of widely applicable rational therapeutics.P rotein aggregates or inclusions with immunoreactivity to ubiquitin represent a common pathological hallmark in a broad range of late-onset neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson disease (PD), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (1). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the formation of these inclusions and their relationship to neuronal dysfunction and degeneration are poorly understood. Mutations in UBQLN2, which encodes the ubiquitin-like protein ubiquilin2 (UBQLN2), have been recently shown to cause a subset of ALS, FTD-type of dementia, or both (2, 3). Notably, mutations within and in close proximity to the PXX domain of ubiquilin2 appear to have high penetrance as shown in familial cases (2). The distribution of ubiquilin2-positive inclusions in the brain and spinal cord is well correlated with cognitive and motor symptoms of patients with diverse etiology, including chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9ORF72)-linked cases (2, 4). The ubiquilin2-positive inclusions appear to cover a wide range of protein inclusions, including those without TAR DNA binding protein (TDP43) immunoreactivity (2, 4), suggesting a primary role for ubiquilin2 in inclusion formation and neurodegeneration. Therefore, understanding the pathophysiological basis of UBQLN2-linked dementia may provide mechanistic insight into the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders and allow for the design of rational therapies. To this end, we developed and characterized mutant UBQLN2 transgenic mice. ResultsDevelopment of UBQLN2 P497H Transgenic Mice. Human UBQLN2 is an intronless gene. We analyzed the UBQLN2 promoter ...

Background Gallbladder carcinoma (GBC) is a relatively rare but highly aggressive cancer with late clinical detection and a poor prognosis. However, the lack of models with features consistent with human gallbladder tumours has hindered progress in pathogenic mechanisms and therapies. Methods We established organoid lines derived from human GBC as well as normal gallbladder and benign gallbladder adenoma (GBA) tissues. The histopathology signatures of organoid cultures were identified by H&E staining, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. The genetic and transcriptional features of organoids were analysed by whole‐exome sequencing and RNA sequencing. A set of compounds targeting the most active signalling pathways in GBCs were screened for their ability to suppress GBC organoids. The antitumour effects of candidate compounds, CUDC‐101 and CUDC‐907, were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. Results The established organoids were cultured stably for more than 6 months and closely recapitulated the histopathology, genetic and transcriptional features, and intratumour heterogeneity of the primary tissues at the single‐cell level. Notably, expression profiling analysis of the organoids revealed a set of genes that varied across the three subtypes and thus may participate in the malignant progression of gallbladder diseases. More importantly, we found that the dual PI3K/HDAC inhibitor CUDC‐907 significantly restrained the growth of various GBC organoids with minimal toxicity to normal gallbladder organoids. Conclusions Patient‐derived organoids are potentially a useful platform to explore molecular pathogenesis of gallbladder tumours and discover personalized drugs.