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Policy and program decisions involve choices among different ways of preparing teachers. These choices are shrouded in increasingly contentious debates as teacher shortages reach crisis proportions. Yet, research on special education teacher education is almost nonexistent. Findings from comparative research documenting the characteristics of effective teacher education programs can inform these choices, but these findings should be grounded in what we know from previous research in general teacher education. To assist educators, we have analyzed literature in general and special teacher education toward two ends. First, we present a framework, derived from work in general education, for analyzing teacher education programs. Second, we use this framework to analyze practice in teacher education in special education. Specifically, we conducted an exhaustive review of special education program descriptions and evaluations. We conclude by describing steps necessary to improve the special education teacher education research base.

Ross describes and evaluates the efforts of a teacher educator to introduce teacher effectiveness research to preservice teachers in ways that support the development of critical reflection. he faculty in the elementarỹ N PROTEACH program at the t University of Florida have identified the development of critical reflection as the primary goal of their teacher preparation program. Like faculty at other institutions targeting reflection as a goal (e.g., University of Wisconsin-Madison, University of Alaska-Fairbanks, University of Houston), we are struggling with problems such as defining the nature of reflection, identifying strategies for fostering reflection in students, and assessing the impact of our efforts.' Research within the past ten years has yielded much valuable information teacher educators might use to foster reflection in their students (Ross, 1987a). However, incorporating this knowledge into courses, field experiences, and programs is not an easy task. And if reflection is to be more than a slogan, we must document our effectiveness in helping students develop reflective abilities. As teacher educators develop their programs, detailed documentation and assessment of their efforts seems essential. This paper describes and evaluates the efforts of one teacher educator to introduce teacher effectiveness research to college juniors within a program that has set the development of reflection as its goal. A Definition of ReflectionIn developing a definition of reflection, the faculty at Florida have drawn heavily on Schon (1983) and on the work of Kitchener and King (1981) who have developed and validated a seven stage model of the development of reflective judgment. The works of teacher educators such as Zeichner and Liston (1987) and Goodman (1984) have also been influential.At a general level, reflection is defined as a way of thinking about educational matters that involves the ability to make rational choices and to assume responsibility for those choices (Goodman, 1984;Ross, 1987a;Zeichner and Liston, 1987). The elements of the reflective process include:Recognizing an educational dilemmã Responding to a dilemma by recognizing both the similarities to other situations and the unique qualities of the particular situatioñ Framing and reframing the dilemmã Experimenting with the dilemma to discover the consequences and implications of various solutions Examining the intended and unintended consequences of an implemented solution and evaluating the solution by determining whether the consequences are desirable or not. Schon ( 1983) stresses that reflective practice is grounded in the practitioner's appreciation system (i. e. , repertoire of values, knowledge, theories, and practices). The appreciation system of the teacher influences the types of dilemmas that will be recognized, the way teachers frame and reframe dilemmas, and the judgments teachers make about the desirability of solutions. For example, Liston and Zeichner (1987) note that teachers must use moral as well as educational criteria...

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