Graphical abstract Transmission of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in humans happens either through airway exposure to respiratory droplets from an infected patient or by touching the virus contaminated surface or objects (fomites). Presence of SARS-CoV-2 in human feces and its passage to sewage system is an emerging concern for public health. Pieces of evidence of the occurrence of viral RNA in feces and municipal wastewater (sewage) systems have not only warned reinforcing the treatment facilities but also suggest that these systems can be monitored to get epidemiological data for checking trend of COVID-19 infection in the community. This review summarizes the occurrence and persistence of novel coronavirus in sewage with an emphasis on the possible water environment contamination. Monitoring of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) via sewage-based epidemiology could deliver promising information regarding rate of infection providing a valid and complementary tool for tracking and diagnosing COVID-19 across communities. Tracking the sewage systems could act as an early warning tool for alerting the public health authorities for necessary actions. Given the impracticality of testing every citizen with limited diagnostic resources, it is imperative that sewage-based epidemiology can be tested as an early warning system. The need for the development of robust sampling strategies and subsequent detection methodologies and challenges for developing countries are also discussed.
Carwash is known as one of the most important urban services bring about production of huge volume of wastewater with high turbidity and high chemical oxygen demand (COD). Seasonal and carwash location features affect the quality of carwash wastewater. Various methods with special focus on chemical processes have been employed for carwash wastewater treatment and eliminating different pollutants from this wastewater of great concern for the environment. This review was conducted for identifying and comparing the efficiency of chemical processes for carwash wastewater treatment. To this aim, key words were identified and a search protocol was defined to search studies in three databases: Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed. The results of this systematic review indicated that coagulation (66%) is the most common chemical processes for carwash wastewater treatment. Although chemical processes are able to reduce the turbidity and COD over 80%. Due to the characteristics of carwash wastewater, chemical processes are a necessary pre-treatment for processes such as membrane technology. Rapid treatment and high efficiency are the advantages of wastewater treatment by chemical methods, but the energy consumption and sludge volume are two main factors in selection the chemical processes for carwash wastewater treatment.
Coronavirus disease has emerged as one of the greatest threats to human well-being. Currently, the whole world is fighting against this pandemic that transmit either through exposure to virus laden respiratory or water droplets or by touching the virus contaminated surfaces. The viral load in feces of an infected patient varies according to the severity of the disease. Subsequent detection of viral genome (SARS-COV-2) in human feces and sewage systems is an emerging concern for public health. This also dictates to reinforce the existing sewage/wastewater treatment facilities. Rapid monitoring is the key to prevent and control the current mass transmission. Wastewater-Based Epidemiology (WBE) is a potential epidemiology tool that can act as a complementary approach for current infectious disease surveillance systems and an early warning system for disease outbreaks. In a developing country like India, inadequate wastewater treatment systems, low-operational facility and relaxed surface water quality criteria even in terms of fecal coliform bacteria are the major challenges for WBE. Herein, we review the occurrence, transmission, survival of SARS-CoV-2, disinfection and potential of sewage surveillance as an early warning system for COVID-19 spread. We also discuss the challenges of open-defecation practices affecting sewage-surveillance in real-time in densely populated developing countries like India.
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