The intervention was effective for increasing condom use and reducing STD among sex workers. The results were used to develop national guidelines on sex worker interventions for nationwide scale up.

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Facial shape differences are one of the most significant phenotypes in humans. It is affected largely by skull shape. However, research into the genetic basis of the craniofacial morphology has rarely been reported. The present study aimed to identify genetic variants influencing craniofacial morphology in northern Han Chinese through whole-exome sequencing (WES). Phenotypic data of the volunteers’ faces and skulls were obtained through three-dimensional CT scan of the skull. A total of 48 phenotypes (35 facial and 13 cranial phenotypes) were used for the bioinformatics analysis. Four genetic loci were identified affecting the craniofacial shapes. The four candidate genes are RGPD3 , IGSF3 , SLC28A3, and USP40 . Four single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) site mutations in RGPD3 , IGSF3, and USP40 were significantly associated with the skull shape ( p < 1×10 −6 ), and three SNP site mutations in RGPD3 , IGSF3, and SLC28A3 were significantly associated with the facial shape ( p < 1×10 −6 ). The rs62152530 site mutation in the RGPD3 gene may be closely associated with the nasal length, ear length, and alar width. The rs647711 site mutation in the IGSF3 gene may be closely associated with the nasal length, mandibular width, and width between the mental foramina. The rs10868138 site mutation in the SLC28A3 gene may be associated with the nasal length, alar width, width between tragus, and width between the mental foramina. The rs1048603 and rs838543 site mutations in the USP40 gene may be closely associated with the pyriform aperture width. Our findings provide useful genetic information for the determination of face morphology.

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