SUMMARY LSD1 is a critical chromatin modulator controlling cellular pluripotency and differentiation through the demethylation of H3K4me1/2. Overexpression of LSD1 has been observed in many types of tumors and is correlated with its oncogenic effects in tumorigenesis. However, the mechanism leading to LSD1 upregulation in tumors remains unclear. Using an unbiased siRNA screening against all the human deubiquitinases, we identified USP28 as a bona fide deubiquitinase of LSD1. USP28 interacted with and stabilized LSD1 via deubiquitination. USP28 overexpression correlated with LSD1 upregulation in multiple cancer cell lines and breast tumor samples. Knockdown of USP28 resulted in LSD1 destabilization, leading to the suppression of cancer stem cell (CSC)-like characteristics in vitro and inhibition of tumorigenicity in vivo, which can be rescued by ectopic LSD1 expression. Our study reveals a critical mechanism underlying the epigenetic regulation by USP28 and provides a new treatment approach against breast cancer.

Snail1, a key transcription factor of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), is subjected to ubiquitination and degradation, but the mechanism by which Snail1 is stabilized in tumours remains unclear. We identify Dub3 as a bona fide Snail1 deubiquitinase, which interacts with and stabilizes Snail1. Dub3 is overexpressed in breast cancer; knockdown of Dub3 resulted in Snail1 destabilization, suppressed EMT and decreased tumour cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. These effects are rescued by ectopic Snail1 expression. IL-6 also stabilizes Snail1 by inducing Dub3 expression, the specific inhibitor WP1130 binds to Dub3 and inhibits the Dub3-mediating Snail1 stabilization in vitro and in vivo. Our study reveals a critical Dub3–Snail1 signalling axis in EMT and metastasis, and provides an effective therapeutic approach against breast cancer.

BACKGROUND & AIMS Hyperactivation of the RAS-RAF signaling pathway in colorectal tumors is associated with metastasis and poor outcomes of patients. Little is known about how RAS–RAF signaling is turned off once activated. We investigated how the pH domain and leucine-rich repeat protein phosphatases (PHLPPs) control RAS–RAF signaling and colorectal cancer (CRC) development. METHODS We used co-immunoprecipitation assays to identify substrates of PHLPP1 and PHLPP2.We studied phosphorylation of RAF1 in CRC cells that express transgenic PHLPP1 or PHLPP2, or lentiviral-based small hairpin (sh)RNAs against their transcripts; we measured effects on cell motility, migration, and invasion in vitro. Tumor progression and survival were analyzed in Phlpp1−/− mice, ApcMin mice, and ApcMin/Phlpp1−/− mice. Microarray data sets of colorectal tumor and non-tumor tissues were analyzed for PHLPP gene expression. RESULTS PHLPP1 and 2 were found to dephosphorylate RAF1 at S338, inhibiting its kinase activity in vitro and in CRC cells. In cells, shRNA knockdown of PHLPP1 or PHLPP2 increased the amplitude and duration of RAF-MEK-ERK signaling downstream of EGFR and KRAS, whereas overexpression had the opposite effect. Knockdown of PHLPP1 or PHLPP2 caused CRC cells to express markers of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and increased migration and invasion in vitro. ApcMin/Phlpp1−/− mice had decreased survival and developed larger intestinal and colon tumors than ApcMin mice, which developed mostly low-grade adenomas; in contrast, 20% of the tumors that developed in ApcMin/Phlpp1−/− mice were invasive adenocarcinomas. Normal villi and adenomas of ApcMin/Phlpp1−/− mice had significantly fewer apoptotic cells than ApcMin mice. Human CRC patient microarray data revealed that the expression of PHLPP1 or PHLPP2 is positively correlated with CDH1. CONCLUSIONS PHLPP1 and 2 dephosphorylate RAF1 to reduce its signaling, increase the invasive and migratory activities of CRC cells, and activate the EMT. In ApcMin mice, loss of PHLPP1 promotes tumor progression.