Summary Eukaryotic mRNAs generally possess a 5′-end m7G cap that promotes their translation and stability. However, mammalian mRNAs can also carry a 5′-end nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) cap that, in contrast to the m7G cap, does not support translation but instead promotes mRNA decay. The mammalian and fungal noncanonical DXO/Rai1 decapping enzymes efficiently remove NAD+ caps and cocrystal structures of DXO/Rai1 with 3′-NADP+ illuminates the molecular mechanism for how the “deNADding” reaction produces NAD+ and 5′-phosphate RNA. Removal of DXO from cells increases NAD+-capped mRNA levels and enables detection of NAD+-capped intronic snoRNAs, suggesting NAD+ caps can be added to 5′-processed termini. Our findings establish NAD+ as an alternative mammalian RNA cap and DXO as a deNADding enzyme modulating cellular levels of NAD+-capped RNAs. Collectively, these data reveal mammalian RNAs can harbor a 5′-end modification distinct from the classical m7G cap that promotes, rather than inhibits, RNA decay.

Coupling of transcription and DNA repair in bacteria is mediated by transcription-repair coupling factor (TRCF, the product of the mfd gene), which removes transcription elongation complexes stalled at DNA lesions and recruits the nucleotide excision repair machinery to the site. Here we describe the 3.2 A-resolution X-ray crystal structure of Escherichia coli TRCF. The structure consists of a compact arrangement of eight domains, including a translocation module similar to the SF2 ATPase RecG, and a region of structural similarity to UvrB. Biochemical and genetic experiments establish that another domain with structural similarity to the Tudor-like domain of the transcription elongation factor NusG plays a critical role in TRCF/RNA polymerase interactions. Comparison with the translocation module of RecG as well as other structural features indicate that TRCF function involves large-scale conformational changes. These data, along with a structural model for the interaction of TRCF with the transcription elongation complex, provide mechanistic insights into TRCF function.

Summary Mycobacterium tuberculosis is arguably the world’s most successful infectious agent due to its ability to control its own cell growth within the host. Bacterial growth rate is closely coupled to rRNA transcription, which in E. coli is regulated through DksA and (p)ppGpp. The mechanisms of rRNA transcriptional control in mycobacteria, which lack DksA, are undefined. Here we identify CarD as an essential mycobacterial protein that controls rRNA transcription. Loss of CarD is lethal for mycobacteria in culture and during infection of mice. CarD depletion leads to sensitivity to killing by oxidative stress, starvation, and DNA damage, accompanied by failure to reduce rRNA transcription. CarD can functionally replace DksA for stringent control of rRNA transcription, even though CarD associates with a distinct site on RNA polymerase. These findings highlight a new molecular mechanism for regulating rRNA transcription in mycobacteria that is critical for M. tuberculosis pathogenesis.

The chemical nature of the 5′ end of RNA is a key determinant of RNA stability, processing, localization, translation efficiency1,2, and has been proposed to provide a layer of “epitranscriptomic” gene regulation3. Recently it has been shown that some bacterial RNA species carry a 5′-end structure reminiscent of the 5′ 7-methylguanylate “cap” in eukaryotic RNA. In particular, RNA species containing a 5′-end nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) or 3′-desphospho-coenzyme A (dpCoA) have been identified in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria3–6. It has been proposed that NAD+, reduced NAD+ (NADH), and dpCoA caps are added to RNA after transcription initiation, in a manner analogous to the addition of 7-methylguanylate caps6–8. Here, we show instead that NAD+, NADH, and dpCoA are incorporated into RNA during transcription initiation, by serving as non-canonical initiating nucleotides (NCINs) for de novo transcription initiation by cellular RNA polymerase (RNAP). We further show that both bacterial RNAP and eukaryotic RNAP II incorporate NCIN caps, that promoter DNA sequences at and upstream of the transcription start site determine the efficiency of NCIN capping, that NCIN capping occurs in vivo, and that NCIN capping has functional consequences. We report crystal structures of transcription initiation complexes containing NCIN-capped RNA products. Our results define the mechanism and structural basis of NCIN capping, and suggest that NCIN-mediated “ab initio capping” may occur in all organisms

Transcription elongation is interrupted by sequences that inhibit nucleotide addition and cause RNA polymerase (RNAP) to pause. Here, by use of native-elongating-transcript sequencing (NET-seq) and a variant of NET-seq that enables analysis of mutant RNAP derivatives in merodiploid cells (mNET-seq), we analyze transcriptional pausing genome-wide in vivo in Escherichia coli. We identify a consensus pause-inducing sequence element, G−10Y−1G+1 (where −1 corresponds to the position of the RNA 3′ end). We demonstrate that sequence-specific interactions between RNA polymerase core enzyme and a core recognition element (CRE) that stabilize transcription initiation complexes also occur in transcription elongation complexes and facilitate pause read-through by stabilizing RNAP in a post-translocated register. Our findings identify key sequence determinants of transcriptional pausing and establish that RNAP-CRE interactions modulate pausing.