Abstract. Many wildlife species are managed based on the compensatory mortality hypothesis, which predicts that harvest mortality (especially adult male mortality) will trigger density-dependent responses in reproduction, survival, and population growth caused via reduced competition for resources. We tested the compensatory mortality hypothesis on two cougar (Puma concolor) populations in Washington, USA (one heavily hunted and one lightly hunted). We estimated population growth, density, survival, and reproduction to determine the effects of hunting on cougar population demography based on data collected from 2002 to 2007. In the heavily hunted population, the total hunting mortality rate (mean 6 SD) was 0.24 6 0.05 (0.35 6 0.08 for males, 0.16 6 0.05 for females). In the lightly hunted population, the total hunting mortality rate was 0.11 6 0.04 (0.16 6 0.06 for males, 0.07 6 0.05 for females). The compensatory mortality hypothesis predicts that higher mortality will result in higher maternity, kitten survival, reproductive success, and lower natural mortality. We found no differences in rates of maternity or natural mortality between study areas, and kitten survival was lower in the heavily hunted population. We rejected the compensatory mortality hypothesis because vital rates did not compensate for hunting mortality. Heavy harvest corresponded with increased immigration, reduced kitten survival, reduced female population growth, and a younger overall age structure. Light harvest corresponded with increased emigration, higher kitten survival, increased female population growth, and an older overall age structure. Managers should not assume the existence of compensatory mortality when developing harvest prescriptions for cougars.

Remedial sport hunting of predators is often used to reduce predator populations and associated complaints and livestock depredations. We assessed the effects of remedial sport hunting on reducing cougar complaints and livestock depredations in Washington from 2005 to 2010 (6 years). The number of complaints, livestock depredations, cougars harvested, estimated cougar populations, human population and livestock populations were calculated for all 39 counties and 136 GMUs (game management units) in Washington. The data was then analyzed using a negative binomial generalized linear model to test for the expected negative relationship between the number of complaints and depredations in the current year with the number of cougars harvested the previous year. As expected, we found that complaints and depredations were positively associated with human population, livestock population, and cougar population. However, contrary to expectations we found that complaints and depredations were most strongly associated with cougars harvested the previous year. The odds of increased complaints and livestock depredations increased dramatically (36 to 240%) with increased cougar harvest. We suggest that increased young male immigration, social disruption of cougar populations, and associated changes in space use by cougars - caused by increased hunting resulted in the increased complaints and livestock depredations. Widespread indiscriminate hunting does not appear to be an effective preventative and remedial method for reducing predator complaints and livestock depredations.

Snow tracking is often used to inventory carnivore communities, but species identification using this method can produce ambiguous and misleading results. DNA can be extracted from hair and scat samples collected from tracks made in snow. Using DNA analysis could allow positive track identification across a broad range of snow conditions, thus increasing survey accuracy and efficiency. We investigated the efficacy of DNA identification using hairs and scats collected during the winter along putative Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) snow tracks and compared our findings to those obtained using hair‐snaring techniques during the summer. We were able to positively identify 81% and 98% of the hair and scat samples, respectively, that were collected in or near snow tracks. Samples containing amplifiable lynx DNA were collected at rates of 1.2–1.3 per km of lynx tracks followed. These amplification rates and encounter frequencies validate the collection and use of DNA samples from snow tracks as a feasible technique for identifying Canada lynx and possibly other rare carnivores. We recommend that biologists include the collection of hairs and scats for DNA analysis as part of snow‐tracking surveys whenever species identification is a high priority.

The effects of increased mortality on the spatial dynamics of solitary carnivores are not well understood. We examined the spatial ecology of two cougar populations that differed in hunting intensity to test whether increased mortality affected home range size and overlap. The stability hypothesis predicts that home range size and overlap will be similar for both sexes among the two areas. The instability hypothesis predicts that home range size and overlap will be greater in the heavily hunted population, although may differ for males versus females due to behavior strategies. We marked 22 adult resident cougars in the lightly hunted population and 20 in the heavily hunted population with GPS collars from 2002 to 2008. Cougar densities and predation rates were similar among areas, suggesting no difference in per capita resources. We compared home range size, two-dimensional home range overlap, and three-dimensional utilization distribution overlap index (UDOI) among annual home ranges for male and female cougars. Male cougars in the heavily hunted area had larger sized home ranges and greater two-dimensional and three-dimensional UDOI overlap than those in the lightly hunted area. Females showed no difference in size and overlap of home range areas between study populations – further suggesting that differences in prey quantity and distribution between study areas did not explain differences in male spatial organization. We reject the spatial stability hypothesis and provide evidence to support the spatial instability hypothesis. Increased hunting and ensuing increased male home range size and overlap may result in negative demographic effects for cougars and potential unintended consequences for managers.

Estimates of cougar (Puma concolor) density are among the least available of any big game species in North America because of monetary and logistical challenges. Thus, wildlife managers identify cougar density estimates as a high priority need for population estimation, developing harvest guidelines, and evaluating management objectives. Cougar densities range from <1 to almost 7 cougars/100 km2; however, the magnitude of spatial and temporal variation associated with these estimates is difficult to assess because this range of densities could potentially be reported for any given population using different demographic, temporal, durational, and analytical approaches. We used long‐term global positioning system (GPS) data from collared cougars across 5 diverse study areas in Washington, USA, as the basis for calculating multiple annual independent‐aged (≥18 months) cougar densities, using consistent methods, and conducted a meta‐analysis to assist with statewide harvest guidelines. To generate specific harvest guidelines for unobserved populations at the management unit scale, we employed a Bayesian decision‐theoretic approach that minimizes statistical risk of failing to achieve a defined harvest rate. For the 16‐year field effort, we calculated 24 annual densities for independent‐aged cougars. Average annual densities ranged from 1.55 ± 0.44 (SD) cougars/100 km2 (n = 5 years) to 2.79 ± 0.35 cougars/100 km2 (n = 5 years) among the 5 study areas. Explicit delineation of the cougar population demonstrated that contribution to density can vary considerably by sex and age class. Application of a 12–16% harvest rate within the risk analysis framework yielded a potential annual harvest of 249 cougars over 91,000 km2 of cougar habitat in Washington. Given the importance of density for establishing harvest guidelines, and the degree of uncertainty in projecting derived densities to future years and unstudied management units, our approach may lessen the ambiguity of extrapolations and increase the longevity of research results. Our risk analysis can be used for a diverse array of species and management objectives and be incorporated into an adaptive management framework for minimizing management risk. Our recommendations can improve standardization in reporting and interpretation of cougar density comparisons and bring clarity to the sources of variability observed in cougar populations. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.