Static optimization is commonly employed in musculoskeletal modeling to estimate muscle and joint loading; however, the ability of this approach to predict shoulder muscle stabilizing function is poorly understood. This includes the roles of the rotator cuff muscles which, as antagonist muscles, contribute negatively to a net joint moment and are known to be important for maintaining glenohumeral joint compression. This study aimed to develop a neuromusculoskeletal model driven entirely from electromyography (EMG) data recorded from the major superficial and deep shoulder muscles, and to compare shoulder muscle and joint force predictions from the EMG-driven model with those calculated using static optimization. Four healthy adults performed six sub-maximal upper-limb contractions including shoulder abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, internal rotation and external rotation. EMG data were simultaneously measured from 16 shoulder muscles using surface and intramuscular electrodes, and joint motion evaluated using video motion analysis. Muscle and joint forces were calculated using both a calibrated EMG-driven neuromusculoskeletal modeling framework, and model simulations that employed static optimization. The EMGdriven model predicted antagonistic muscle function for pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi and teres major during abduction and flexion; supraspinatus during adduction; middle deltoid during extension; and subscapularis, pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi during external rotation. In contrast, static optimization neural solutions showed little or no recruitment of these muscles, and preferentially activated agonistic prime movers with large moment arms.Glenohumeral joint force calculations consequently varied between models, for instance, during internal rotation (mean difference: 41.1%BW). The findings suggest that static optimization may under-estimate activity of shoulder muscle antagonists, and therefore, their contribution to glenohumeral joint stability.
The implementation of the Shari'a and the institutionalization of gender inequality in the aftermath of the revolution led to the disillusionment of the gender-sensitive Islamist women and triggered their discontent. Through their involvement in politics they attempted to present a different reading of Islam and Islamic laws which would be more attentive to the condition of women. These endeavours failed, however, because on the one hand they were still largely based on traditionalist interpretations, and on the other hand, the condition of women did not constitute a priority for the political and religious elite during the Iraq-Iran War . The end of the war and the implementation of 'Reconstruction Policies' provided an opportunity for a new generation of gender-conscious Islamist women to seek allies among secular women, to present a modern reading of Islam, and make radical demands for change in women's status by using politics as a potent agent. This article, which is largely based on personal interviews with some of these vocal women, traces their aspirations and endeavours, their identity formation, and the outcomes of their mobilization.
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