The depletion of fossil fuel reserves with increased fuel demand and global emissions has increased the search for ecofriendly renewable fuels with a low environmental impact. Biodiesel can be considered as mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids obtained from the transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats. Economically low-cost biodiesel production has received considerable interest for blending with fossil-based diesel for a more sustainable future. Therefore, the current study focuses on synthesizing an efficient, low-cost heterogeneous CaO catalyst from waste egg and seashell using a solidstate method and applying it to the transesterification of Jatropha oil. The Ca 2 Fe 2 O 5 solid catalyst was prepared by doping calcined CaO with iron in a 2:1 ratio using ferric oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Furthermore, the catalyst was extruded and analytically characterized using XRD, FT IR, BET, and its basic strength was quantified by Hammett indicators. Later on, transesterification of Jatropha oil was optimized by varying reaction parameters, such as the molar ratio of methanol to Jatropha oil, reaction time, and catalyst loading. The maximum conversion yield was 96.3% at a 20:1 methanol-to-oil ratio and 80 bar N 2 pressure using 5% (w/w) catalyst loading. Furthermore, the catalytic recycling study demonstrated that the Ca 2 Fe 2 O 5 catalyst could retain > 70-80% of transesterification efficiency and stability up to 4 cycles under high acid value and moisture conditions.
Forced exclusion and historical injustices based on caste and space are perpetuated throughout Indian history. Although, a great deal of literature on the caste system of India and village communities is available, very little attention has been paid to its socio-spatial dimensions, and, here comes Ambedkar. Drawing, mainly, from the writings of Dr Ambedkar, the article focusses on the territorial segmentation and cosmological codes of social conduct, resulting in the worst forms of inequality and untouchability in Hindu villages. The aim of the article is to trace the trajectory of socio-spatial segregation between untouchables and caste Hindus in the contours of socio-religious settings that resulted in the worst forms of exploitation and oppression. The main argument of the article involves Dr Ambedkar’s critique of caste-based inequality, foregrounding the socio-spatial segregational patterns and social interactions in the Hindu villages. It establishes that there is an involuntary and forced socio-spatial compartmentalisation and ‘ghettoisation’ of lower strata functioning through the institution of caste, which derives authority from the Hindu religion and religious texts. It is argued that for Dr Ambedkar, space (segmented territories) played a critical role in both the perpetuation and evanescence of untouchability, and that in socio-spatial context, disadvantages of caste discrimination are internalised and articulated in the formal–informal structures of Hindu villages.
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