The currently discussed model of magnetoreception in birds proposes that the direction of the magnetic field is perceived by radical-pair processes in specialized photoreceptors, with cryptochromes suggested as potential candidate molecules mediating magnetic compass information. Behavioral studies have shown that magnetic compass orientation takes place in the eye and requires light from the blue-green part of the spectrum. Cryptochromes are known to absorb in the same spectral range. Because of this we searched for cryptochrome (CRY) in the retina of European robins, Erithacus rubecula, passerine birds that migrate at night. Here, we report three individually expressed cryptochromes, eCRY1a, eCRY1b, and eCRY2. While eCRY1a and eCRY2 are similar to the cryptochromes found in the retina of the domestic chicken, eCRY1b has a unique carboxy (C)-terminal. In light of the 'radical-pair' model, our findings support a potential role of cryptochromes as transducers for the perception of magnetic compass information in birds.

SUMMARYIn previous experiments, migratory birds had been disoriented under 635 nm red light, apparently unable to use their magnetic compass. The present study with European robins, Erithacus rubecula, confirms these findings for red light at the levels of 6×1015 quanta s–1m–2 and 43×1015 quanta s–1m–2, suggesting that the disorientation under red light was not caused by the test light being below the threshold for magnetoreception. However, pre-exposure to red light for 1 h immediately before the critical tests under red light of 6–7×1015 quanta s–1 m–2 enabled robins to orient in their seasonally appropriate migratory direction in spring as well as in autumn. Pre-exposure to darkness, by contrast, failed to induce orientation under red light. Under green light of 7×1015 quanta s–1 m–2, the birds were oriented in their migratory orientation after both types of pre-exposure. These findings suggest that the newly gained ability to orient under red light might be based on learning to interpret a novel pattern of activation of the magnetoreceptors and hence may represent a parallel to the previously described enlargement of the functional window to new magnetic intensities. Mechanisms involving two types of spectral mechanisms with different absorbance maxima and their possible interactions are discussed.

Background Investigations of evolution knowledge and acceptance and their relation are central to evolution education research. Ambiguous results in this field of study demonstrate a variety of measuring issues, for instance differently theorized constructs, or a lack of standardized methods, especially for cross-country comparisons. In particular, meaningful comparisons across European countries, with their varying cultural backgrounds and education systems, are rare, often include only few countries, and lack standardization. To address these deficits, we conducted a standardized European survey, on 9200 first-year university students in 26 European countries utilizing a validated, comprehensive questionnaire, the “Evolution Education Questionnaire”, to assess evolution acceptance and knowledge, as well as influencing factors on evolution acceptance. Results We found that, despite European countries’ different cultural backgrounds and education systems, European first-year university students generally accept evolution. At the same time, they lack substantial knowledge about it, even if they are enrolled in a biology-related study program. Additionally, we developed a multilevel-model that determines religious faith as the main influencing factor in accepting evolution. According to our model, knowledge about evolution and interest in biological topics also increase acceptance of evolution, but to a much lesser extent than religious faith. The effect of age and sex, as well as the country’s affiliation, students’ denomination, and whether or not a student is enrolled in a biology-related university program, is negligible. Conclusions Our findings indicate that, despite all their differences, most of the European education systems for upper secondary education lead to acceptance of evolution at least in university students. It appears that, at least in this sample, the differences in knowledge between countries reflect neither the extent to which school curricula cover evolutionary biology nor the percentage of biology-related students in the country samples. Future studies should investigate the role of different European school curricula, identify particularly problematic or underrepresented evolutionary concepts in biology education, and analyze the role of religious faith when teaching evolution.

Environmental context. Is long-range transport from populated and industrialised areas to blame for pollution of remote regions? We report that, for the world's most remote region, Antarctica, and one prominent class of global pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, long-range transport from other continents has not contributed significantly to recent snow contamination. Rather, the major sources are regional scientific stations and ocean transport, mostly tourism.Abstract. Firn samples attributed to the period between 2002 and 2005 were collected from a snow pit on the Ekström Shelf Ice in the Weddell Sea (70843.8 0 S, 8825.1 0 W). Low-volume meltwater samples (5 mL) were extracted by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and analysed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The recovery of the analytical method for the 4-6 ring PAHs was low. PAH concentrations in snow were found within the range of 26-197 ng L À1 . The most prevailing substances were determined to be naphthalene, 1-and 2methylnaphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene and phenanthrene, with naphthalene accounting for an overall mean of 82% of total PAH. Potential emission sources of PAHs in snow were studied using back-trajectory statistics and available emission data of combustion sources in and around Antarctica. The distance to the sources (ships and research stations) in this region was found to control the snow PAH concentrations. There was no indication for intercontinental transport or marine sources.

Understandings of the nature of scientific inquiry (NOSI), as opposed to engaging students in inquiry learning experiences,