Bentonites are clay soils characterised by a high specific surface and a permanent negative electric charge on their solid skeleton. Their common use as hydraulic and contaminant barriers for landfill and soil remediation applications, including the final disposal of nuclear waste, needs to be supported by adequate theoretical modelling of their mechanical behaviour and transport properties, in order to assess the expected performance in the long term. To this end, a theoretical approach has been proposed in order to derive constitutive equations for their coupled chemical-hydraulic-mechanical behaviour. The phenomenological parameters that govern the transport of electrolyte solutions through bentonites-that is, the hydraulic conductivity, the reflection coefficient (which is also called the chemico-osmotic efficiency coefficient), and the osmotic effective diffusion coefficient-have been measured through laboratory tests on a bentonite with porosity of 0. 81, over a range of sodium chloride concentrations in the pore solution that varied from 5 mM to 100 mM. The relevance of the osmotic phenomena has been shown to decrease when the salt concentration increases. The obtained results have been interpreted by assuming that the microscopic deviations of the pore solution state variables from their average values are negligible. In this way, it is possible to interpret the macroscopic behaviour on the basis of the physical and chemical properties of the bentonite mineralogical components.
COVID-19 is proving to be an unprecedented disaster for human health, social contacts and the economy worldwide. It is evident that SARS-CoV-2 may spread through municipal solid waste (MSW), if collected, bagged, handled, transported or disposed of inappropriately. Under the stress placed by the current pandemic on the sanitary performance across all MSW management (MSWM) chains, this industry needs to re-examine its infrastructure resilience with respect to all processes, from waste identification, classification, collection, separation, storage, transportation, recycling, treatment and disposal. The current paper provides an overview of the severe challenges placed by COVID-19 onto MSW systems, highlighting the essential role of waste management in public health protection during the ongoing pandemic. It also discusses the measures issued by various international organisations and countries for the protection of MSWM employees (MSWEs), identifying gaps, especially for developing countries, where personal protection equipment and clear guidelines to MSWEs may not have been provided, and the general public may not be well informed. In countries with high recycling rates of MSW, the need to protect MSWEs' health has affected the supply stream of the recycling industry. The article concludes with recommendations for the MSW industry operating under public health crisis conditions.
The increasing use of clays, with a high montmorillonite content in their mineralogical composition, as hydraulic and contaminant barriers for landfill and soil remediation applications needs to be supported by an adequate theoretical modelling of the mechanical behaviour and transport properties, in order to assess the expected performances in the long term. The framework of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes was adopted in a companiom paper to derive phenomenological constitutive equations for a clay soil characterized by swelling and osmotic phenomena, without specifying any of the physical mechanisms that occur at the pore scale. In this paper, a physical approach is proposed in order to provide an interpretation of the phenomenological parameters, obtained from laboratory tests. The soil structure is assumed to be constituted by montmorillonite lamellae, that can be aggregated to form the so-called tactoids, which have a slit-like geometry. Chemical equilibrium is assumed to be established between the bulk electrolyte solutions and the internal pore solution at the macroscopic scale, so that the hydraulic pressure and ion concentrations can be evaluated through the Donnan equations. Water and ion transport is described at the pore scale through the generalized Navier-Stokes equation and the generalized Nernst-Planck equations, respectively. Mechanical behaviour is modelled taking into account intergranular contact stresses. The approach is applied to interpret literature experimental results, showing how it can reduce the number of tests that need to be carried out and provide insight into the physical mechanisms that determine the observed phenomena.
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