Prolonged seizures [status epilepticus (SE)] constitute a neurological emergency that can permanently damage the brain. SE results from a failure of the normal mechanisms to terminate seizures; in particular, γ-amino butyric acid-mediated inhibition, and benzodiazepine anticonvulsants are often incompletely effective. ATP acts as a fast neurotransmitter via ionotropic ligand-gated P2X receptors. Here we report that SE induced by intra-amygdala kainic acid in mice selectively increased hippocampal levels of P2X7 receptors relative to other P2X receptors. Using transgenic P2X7 reporter mice expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein, we identify dentate granule neurons as the major cell population transcribing the P2X7 receptor after SE. Pretreatment of mice with an intracerebroventricular microinjection of 1.75 nmol A438079, a P2X7 receptor antagonist, reduced seizure duration by 58% and reduced seizure-induced neuronal death by 61%. Injection of brilliant blue G (1 pmol), another selective antagonist, reduced seizure duration by 48% and was also neuroprotective. A438079 was seizure-suppressive when injected shortly after induction of SE, and coinjection of A438079 with lorazepam 60 min after triggering SE, when electrographic seizure-responsiveness to lorazepam had decreased, also terminated SE. Our results suggest that P2X7 receptor antagonists may be a promising class of drug for seizure abrogation and neuroprotection in SE.

When an otherwise harmful insult to the brain is preceded by a brief, noninjurious stimulus, the brain becomes tolerant, and the resulting damage is reduced. Epileptic tolerance develops when brief seizures precede an episode of prolonged seizures (status epilepticus). MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, noncoding RNAs that function as post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression. We investigated how prior seizure preconditioning affects the miRNA response to status epilepticus evoked by intra-amygdalar kainic acid in mice. The miRNA was extracted from the ipsilateral CA3 subfield 24 hours after focal-onset status epilepticus in animals that had previously received either seizure preconditioning (tolerance) or no preconditioning (injury), and mature miRNA levels were measured using TaqMan low-density arrays. Expression of 21 miRNAs was increased, relative to control, after status epilepticus alone, and expression of 12 miRNAs was decreased. Increased miR-132 levels were matched with increased binding to Argonaute-2, a constituent of the RNA-induced silencing complex. In tolerant animals, expression responses of >40% of the injury-group-detected miRNAs differed, being either unchanged relative to control or down-regulated, and this included miR-132. In vivo microinjection of locked nucleic acid-modified oligonucleotides (antagomirs) against miR-132 depleted hippocampal miR-132 levels and reduced seizure-induced neuronal death. Thus, our data strongly suggest that miRNAs are important regulators of seizure-induced neuronal death.

Neuroinflammation is thought to contribute to the pathogenesis and maintenance of temporal lobe epilepsy, but the underlying cell and molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. The P2X7 receptor is an ionotropic receptor predominantly expressed on the surface of microglia, although neuronal expression has also been reported. The receptor is activated by the release of ATP from intracellular sources that occurs during neurodegeneration, leading to microglial activation and inflammasome-mediated interleukin 1␤ release that contributes to neuroinflammation.UsingareportermouseinwhichgreenfluorescentproteinisinducedinresponsetothetranscriptionofP2rx7,weshowthat expression of the receptor is selectively increased in CA1 pyramidal and dentate granule neurons, as well as in microglia in mice that developed epilepsy after intra-amygdala kainic acid-induced status epilepticus. P2X7 receptor levels were increased in hippocampal subfields in the mice and in resected hippocampus from patients with pharmacoresistant temporal lobe epilepsy. Cells transcribing P2rx7 in hippocampal slices from epileptic mice displayed enhanced agonist-evoked P2X7 receptor currents, and synaptosomes from these animals showed increased P2X7 receptor levels and altered calcium responses. A 5 d treatment of epileptic mice with systemic injections of the centrally available, potent, and specific P2X7 receptor antagonist JNJ-47965567 (30 mg/kg) significantly reduced spontaneous seizures during continuous video-EEG monitoring that persisted beyond the time of drug presence in the brain. Hippocampal sections from JNJ-47965567-treated animals obtained Ͼ5 d after treatment ceased displayed strongly reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis. The present study suggests that targeting the P2X7 receptor has anticonvulsant and possibly disease-modifying effects in experimental epilepsy.

Summary Purpose ATP is an essential transmitter/cotransmitter in neuron function and pathophysiology and has recently emerged as a potential contributor to prolonged seizures (status epilepticus) through the activation of the purinergic ionotropic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R). Increased P2X7R expression has been reported in the hippocampus, and P2X7R antagonists reduced seizure‐induced damage to this brain region. However, status epilepticus also produces damage to the neocortex. The present study was designed to characterize P2X7R in the neocortex and assess effects of P2X7R antagonists on cortical injury after status epilepticus. Methods Status epilepticus was induced in mice by intraamygdala microinjection of kainic acid. Specific P2X7R inhibitors were administered into the ventricle before seizure induction, and cortical electroencephalography and behavior was recorded to assess seizure severity. P2X7R expression was examined in neocortex up to 24 h after status epilepticus, in epileptic mice, and in resected neocortex from patients with pharmacoresistent temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). In addition, the induction of P2X7R after status epilepticus was investigated using transgenic P2X7R reporter mice, which express enhanced green fluorescent protein under the control of the p2x7r promoter. Key Findings Status epilepticus resulted in increased P2X7R protein levels in the neocortex of mice. Neocortical P2X7 receptor levels were also elevated in mice that developed epilepsy after status epilepticus and in resected neocortex from patients with pharmacoresistent TLE. Immunohistochemistry determined that neurons were the major cell population transcribing the P2X7R in the neocortex within the first 8 h after status epilepticus, whereas in epileptic mice, P2X7R up‐regulation occurred in microglia as well as in neurons. Pretreatment of mice with the specific P2X7R inhibitor A‐438079 reduced electrographic and clinical seizure severity during status epilepticus and reduced seizure‐induced neuronal death in the neocortex. Significance Our findings identify neurons in the neocortex as an important site of P2X7R up‐regulation after status epilepticus and in epilepsy, and provide support for the possible use of P2X7R antagonists for the treatment of status epilepticus and prevention of seizure‐induced brain damage.

The ATP-gated ionotropic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) modulates glial activation, cytokine production and neurotransmitter release following brain injury. Levels of the P2X7R are increased in experimental and human epilepsy but the mechanisms controlling P2X7R expression remain poorly understood. Here we investigated P2X7R responses after focal-onset status epilepticus in mice, comparing changes in the damaged, ipsilateral hippocampus to the spared, contralateral hippocampus. P2X7R-gated inward currents were suppressed in the contralateral hippocampus and P2rx7 mRNA was selectively uploaded into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), suggesting microRNA targeting. Analysis of RISC-loaded microRNAs using a high-throughput platform, as well as functional assays, suggested the P2X7R is a target of microRNA-22. Inhibition of microRNA-22 increased P2X7R expression and cytokine levels in the contralateral hippocampus after status epilepticus and resulted in more frequent spontaneous seizures in mice. The major pro-inflammatory and hyperexcitability effects of microRNA-22 silencing were prevented in P2rx7−/− mice or by treatment with a specific P2X7R antagonist. Finally, in vivo injection of microRNA-22 mimics transiently suppressed spontaneous seizures in mice. The present study supports a role for post-transcriptional regulation of the P2X7R and suggests therapeutic targeting of microRNA-22 may prevent inflammation and development of a secondary epileptogenic focus in the brain.