Please refer to usage guidelines at http://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/policies.html or alternatively contact researchonline@lshtm.ac.uk. A Ab bs st tr ra ac ct tThis paper reviews and draws lessons on health financing reforms in seven countries in South East Asia which have sought to reduce dependence on out-of-pocket payments and increase pooled health finance. The resource-poor countries, Cambodia and Lao, have relied largely on donor-supported Health Equity Funds to target the poor, and reliable funding and appropriate identification of the eligible poor are two major challenges for nationwide scaling-up. Payroll-tax-financed social health insurance is commonly applied to formal sector employees (Malaysia excepted), with varying outcomes in term of financial protection. Alternative payment methods have different implications for provider behaviour and financial protection. Two alternative approaches for financial protection of the non-poor outside the formal sector have emerged, contributory arrangements and taxfinanced schemes, with differing abilities to achieve universal coverage rapidly. Fiscal space and mobilization of payroll contributions are both important in accelerating universal coverage. As reform is complex, institutional capacity to generate evidence and inform policy is essential and should be strengthened.3
ObjectivesTo analyse the relationship between health need, insurance coverage, health service availability, service use, insurance claims and out-of-pocket spending on health across Indonesia.DesignSecondary analysis of nationally representative quantitative data. We merged four national data sets: the National Socioeconomic Survey 2018, National Census of Villages 2018, Population Health Development Index 2018 and National Insurance Records to end 2017. Descriptive analysis and linear regression were performed.SettingIndonesia has one of the world’s largest single-payer national health insurance schemes. Data are individual and district level; all are representative for each of the country’s 514 districts.ParticipantsAnonymised secondary data from 1 131 825 individual records in the National Socioeconomic Survey and 83 931 village records in the village census. Aggregate data for 220 million insured citizens.Primary outcome measuresHealth service use and out-of-pocket payments, by health need, insurance status and service availability. Secondary outcome: insurance claims.ResultsSelf-reported national health insurance registration (60.6%) is about 10% lower compared with the insurer’s report (71.1%). Insurance coverage is highest in poorer areas, where service provision, and thus service use and health spending, are lowest. Inpatient use is higher among the insured than the uninsured (OR 2.35, 95% CI 2.27 to 2.42), controlling for health need and access), and poorer patients are most likely to report free inpatient care (53% in wealth quintile 1 vs 41% in Q5). Insured patients spend US$ 3.14 more on hospitalisation than the uninsured (95% CI 1.98 to 4.31), but the difference disappears when controlled for wealth. Lack of services is a major constraint on service use, insurance claims and out-of-pocket spending.ConclusionsThe Indonesian public insurance system protects many inpatients, especially the poorest, from excessive spending. However, others, especially in Eastern Indonesia cannot benefit because few services are available. To achieve health equity, the Indonesian government needs to address supply side constraints and reduce structural underfunding.
Indonesia faces a growing informal sector in the wake of implementing a national social health insurance system—Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN)—that supersedes the vertical programmes historically tied to informal employment. Sustainably financing coverage for informal workers requires incentivising enrolment for those never insured and recovering enrolment among those who once paid but no longer do so. This study aims to assess the ability- and willingness-to-pay of informal sector workers who have stopped paying the JKN premium for at least six months, across districts of different fiscal capacity, and explore which factors shaped their willingness and ability to pay using qualitative interviews. Surveys were conducted for 1,709 respondents in 2016, and found that informal workers’ average ability and willingness to pay fell below the national health insurance scheme’s premium amount, even as many currently spend more than this on healthcare costs. There were large groups for whom the costs of the premium were prohibitive (38%) or, alternatively, they were both technically willing and able to pay (25%). As all individuals in the sample had once paid for insurance, their main reasons for lapsing were based on the uncertain income of informal workers and their changing needs. The study recommends a combination of strategies of targeting of subsidies, progressive premium setting, facilitating payment collection, incentivising insurance package upgrades and socialising the benefits of health insurance in informal worker communities.
Fucoxanthin has interesting anticancer activity, but is insoluble in water, hindering its use as a drug. Microencapsulation is used as a technique for improving drug delivery. This study aimed to formulate fucoxanthin-loaded microspheres (F-LM) for anticancer treatment of H1299 cancer cell lines and optimize particle size (PS) and encapsulation efficiency (EE). Using response surface methodology (RSM), a face centered central composite design (FCCCD) was designed with three factors: Polyvinylalcohol (PVA), poly(d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), and fucoxanthin concentration. F-LM was produced using a modified double-emulsion solvent evaporation method. The F-LM were characterized for release profile, release kinetics, and degradation pattern. Optimal F-LM PS and EE of 9.18 µm and 33.09%, respectively, with good surface morphology, were achieved from a 0.5% (w/v) PVA, 6.0% (w/v) PLGA, 200 µg/mL fucoxanthin formulation at a homogenization speed of 20,500 rpm. PVA concentration was the most significant factor (p < 0.05) affecting PS. Meanwhile, EE was significantly affected by interaction between the three factors: PVA, PLGA, and fucoxanthin. In vitro release curve showed fucoxanthin had a high burst release (38.3%) at the first hour, followed by a sustained release stage reaching (79.1%) within 2 months. Release kinetics followed a diffusion pattern predominantly controlled by the Higuchi model. Biodegradability studies based on surface morphology changes on the surface of the F-LM, show that morphology changed within the first hour, and F-LM completely degraded within 2 months. RSM under FCCCD design improved the difference between the lowest and highest responses, with good correlation between observed and predicted values for PS and EE of F-LM.
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