Development of bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) based genetic sensors for sensing biological functions such as protein–protein interactions (PPIs) in vivo has a special value in measuring such dynamic events at their native environment. Since its inception in the late nineties, BRET related research has gained significant momentum in terms of adding versatility to the assay format and wider applicability where it has been suitably used. Beyond the scope of quantitative measurement of PPIs and protein dimerization, molecular imaging applications based on BRET assays have broadened its scope for screening pharmacologically important compounds by in vivo imaging as well. In this mini-review we focus on an in-depth analysis of engineered BRET systems developed and their successful application to cell-based assays as well as in vivo non-invasive imaging in live subjects.

Cell size is proportional to growth rate. Thus, cells growing rapidly in rich nutrients can be nearly twice the size of cells growing slowly in poor nutrients. This proportional relationship appears to hold across all orders of life, yet the underlying mechanisms are unknown. In budding yeast, most growth occurs during mitosis, and the proportional relationship between cell size and growth rate is therefore enforced primarily by modulating growth in mitosis. When growth is slow, the duration of mitosis is increased to allow more time for growth, yet the amount of growth required to complete mitosis is reduced, which leads to the birth of small daughter cells. Previous studies have found that Rts1, a member of the conserved B56 family of protein phosphatase 2A regulatory subunits, works in a TORC2 signaling network that influences cell size and growth rate. However, it was unclear whether Rts1 influences cell growth and size in mitosis. Here, we show that Rts1 is required for the proportional relationship between cell size and growth rate during mitosis. Moreover, nutrients and Rts1 influence the duration and extent of growth in mitosis via Wee1 and Pds1/securin, two conserved regulators of mitotic progression. Together, the data are consistent with a model in which global signals that set growth rate also set the critical amount of growth required for cell cycle progression, which would provide a simple mechanistic explanation for the proportional relationship between cell size and growth rate.

In all cells, progression through the cell cycle occurs only when sufficient growth has occurred. Thus, cells must translate growth into a proportional signal that can be used to measure and transmit information about growth. Previous genetic studies in budding yeast suggested that related kinases called Gin4 and Hsl1 could play roles in mechanisms that measure bud growth; however, interpretation of the data was complicated by the use of gene deletions that cause complex terminal phenotypes. Here, we used the first conditional alleles of Gin4 and Hsl1 to more precisely define their functions. We show that excessive bud growth during a prolonged mitotic delay is an immediate consequence of inactivating Gin4 and Hsl1. Thus, acute loss of Gin4 and Hsl1 causes cells to behave as though they cannot detect that bud growth has occurred. We further show that Gin4 and Hsl1 undergo gradual hyperphosphorylation during bud growth that is dependent upon growth and correlated with the extent of growth. Moreover, gradual hyperphosphorylation of Gin4 during bud growth requires binding to anionic phospholipids that are delivered to the growing bud. While alternative models are possible, the data suggest that signaling lipids delivered to the growing bud generate a growth-dependent signal that could be used to measure bud growth.

In all cells, progression through the cell cycle occurs only when sufficient growth has occurred. Thus, cells must translate growth into a proportional signal that can be used to measure and transmit information about growth. Previous genetic studies in budding yeast suggested that related kinases called Gin4 and Hsl1 could function in mechanisms that measure bud growth; however, interpretation of the data was complicated by the use of gene deletions that cause complex terminal phenotypes. Here, we used the first conditional alleles of Gin4 and Hsl1 to more precisely define their functions. We show that excessive bud growth during a prolonged mitotic delay is an immediate consequence of inactivating Gin4 and Hsl1. Thus, acute loss of Gin4 and Hsl1 causes cells to behave as though they cannot detect that bud growth has occurred. We further show that Gin4 and Hsl1 undergo gradual hyperphosphorylation during bud growth that is dependent upon growth and correlated with the extent of growth. Moreover, gradual hyperphosphorylation of Gin4 during bud growth requires binding to anionic phospholipids that are delivered to the growing bud. While alternative models are possible, the data suggest that signaling lipids delivered to the growing bud generate a growth-dependent signal that could be used to measure bud growth.

No abstract