Consistent, high-level, vaccine-induced protection against human malaria has only been achieved by inoculation of Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoites (SPZ) by mosquito bites. We report that the PfSPZ Vaccine--composed of attenuated, aseptic, purified, cryopreserved PfSPZ--was safe and well tolerated when administered four to six times intravenously (IV) to 40 adults. Zero of six subjects receiving five doses and three of nine subjects receiving four doses of 1.35 × 10(5) PfSPZ Vaccine and five of six nonvaccinated controls developed malaria after controlled human malaria infection (P = 0.015 in the five-dose group and P = 0.028 for overall, both versus controls). PfSPZ-specific antibody and T cell responses were dose-dependent. These data indicate that there is a dose-dependent immunological threshold for establishing high-level protection against malaria that can be achieved with IV administration of a vaccine that is safe and meets regulatory standards.

The efficacy of a sporozoite-based malaria vaccine is tested in humans, nonhuman primates, and mice.

A highly protective malaria vaccine would greatly facilitate the prevention and elimination of malaria and containment of drug-resistant parasites. A high level (more than 90%) of protection against malaria in humans has previously been achieved only by immunization with radiation-attenuated Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoites (PfSPZ) inoculated by mosquitoes; by intravenous injection of aseptic, purified, radiation-attenuated, cryopreserved PfSPZ ('PfSPZ Vaccine'); or by infectious PfSPZ inoculated by mosquitoes to volunteers taking chloroquine or mefloquine (chemoprophylaxis with sporozoites). We assessed immunization by direct venous inoculation of aseptic, purified, cryopreserved, non-irradiated PfSPZ ('PfSPZ Challenge') to malaria-naive, healthy adult volunteers taking chloroquine for antimalarial chemoprophylaxis (vaccine approach denoted as PfSPZ-CVac). Three doses of 5.12 × 10 PfSPZ of PfSPZ Challenge at 28-day intervals were well tolerated and safe, and prevented infection in 9 out of 9 (100%) volunteers who underwent controlled human malaria infection ten weeks after the last dose (group III). Protective efficacy was dependent on dose and regimen. Immunization with 3.2 × 10 (group I) or 1.28 × 10 (group II) PfSPZ protected 3 out of 9 (33%) or 6 out of 9 (67%) volunteers, respectively. Three doses of 5.12 × 10 PfSPZ at five-day intervals protected 5 out of 8 (63%) volunteers. The frequency of Pf-specific polyfunctional CD4 memory T cells was associated with protection. On a 7,455 peptide Pf proteome array, immune sera from at least 5 out of 9 group III vaccinees recognized each of 22 proteins. PfSPZ-CVac is a highly efficacious vaccine candidate; when we are able to optimize the immunization regimen (dose, interval between doses, and drug partner), this vaccine could be used for combination mass drug administration and a mass vaccination program approach to eliminate malaria from geographically defined areas.

In 2015 there were an estimated 214 million clinical cases and 438,000 deaths due to malaria 1 , primarily caused by Pf in children in sub-Saharan Africa. A highly effective vaccine is urgently needed to prevent malaria in individuals and to facilitate elimination of malaria from defined geographic areas. To achieve these goals, we established an interim target of >85% sterile protection against Pf infection for >6 months 2 .There is currently no malaria subunit vaccine that approaches this level of protection. The most extensively studied candidate malaria vaccine, RTS,S (a subunit vaccine based on the Pf circumsporozoite protein (PfCSP)), confers sterilizing protection against controlled human malaria infection (CHMI) in about 22% of healthy malarianaive adults 5 months after vaccination 3 . In a phase 3 field study, the efficacy of RTS,S against clinical malaria was 26% and 36% in young infants and children between the ages of 5 and 17 months, respectively, through 38-48 months of follow-up following a fourdose regimen on a 0-, 1-, 2-, and 20-month schedule 4 . Therefore, it is necessary to investigate alternative vaccination strategies that confer long-lived sterilizing protection 5,6 .Sustained sterilizing immunity against the pre-erythrocytic stages of Pf has been observed in humans immunized by wholeparasite approaches using mosquitoes for vaccination 7,8 . In a study An attenuated Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoite (SPZ) vaccine, PfSPZ Vaccine, is highly protective against controlled human malaria infection (CHMI) 3 weeks after immunization, but the durability of protection is unknown. We assessed how vaccine dosage, regimen, and route of administration affected durable protection in malaria-naive adults. After four intravenous immunizations with 2.7 × 10 5 PfSPZ, 6/11 (55%) vaccinated subjects remained without parasitemia following CHMI 21 weeks after immunization. Five non-parasitemic subjects from this dosage group underwent repeat CHMI at 59 weeks, and none developed parasitemia. Although Pf-specific serum antibody levels correlated with protection up to 21-25 weeks after immunization, antibody levels waned substantially by 59 weeks. Pf-specific T cell responses also declined in blood by 59 weeks.To determine whether T cell responses in blood reflected responses in liver, we vaccinated nonhuman primates with PfSPZ Vaccine. Pf-specific interferon-g-producing CD8 T cells were present at ~100-fold higher frequencies in liver than in blood. Our findings suggest that PfSPZ Vaccine conferred durable protection to malaria through long-lived tissue-resident T cells and that administration of higher doses may further enhance protection.

US National Institutes of Health Intramural Research Program, Sanaria.