Comparative Flower Development inTheobroma cacaoBased on Temporal Morphological Indicators

Abstract

To set the stage for studies on gene regulation in the cocoa plant, a detailed analysis of the sequence of floral development in Theobroma cacao L. is presented and compared with a well-studied model species Arabidopsis thaliana. Morphological measurements from time-lapse photography and LM and EM were used to create mathematical models of flower development. Comparison of the T. cacao floral developmental program to the rosid model system A. thaliana revealed that, although the final sizes and flower morphologies in the two species differ, their developmental programs are strikingly similar.

A spatial perspective on flowering in cauliflorous cacao: architecture defines flower cushion location, not its early activity

“…In cacao, subordinate meristems form during primary growth of an axis but can remain suppressed for extended periods ( Greathouse and Laetsch, 1969 ; Wheat, 1979 ; Swanson et al , 2008 ). In seedling-grown cacao, the tree typically acquires reproductive ability only after the first crown of plagiotropic branches develops, usually after 2–3 years of growth.…”

“…This form of growth inhibition, known as para-dormancy, operates within the tree and is mediated by hormonal signals and source–sink relationships between organs ( Nozeran et al , 1971 ; Lang et al , 1987 ; Shimizu-Sato and Mori, 2001 ; Ongaro and Leyser, 2007 ; Smith and Samach, 2013 ; Capelli et al , 2021 ). Many studies on the physiology of flowering in cacao have focused on endogenous mechanisms related to fruit set, particularly sexual self-compatibility and floral abscission ( Aneja et al , 1999 ; Hasenstein and Zavada, 2001 ; Almeida and Valle, 2007 ; Swanson et al , 2008 ). However, there are no reports addressing the physiological factors involved in floral induction and floral bud activation in cacao.…”

A spatial perspective on flowering in cauliflorous cacao: architecture defines flower cushion location, not its early activity

“…In cacao, subordinate meristems form during primary growth of an axis but can remain suppressed for extended periods ( Greathouse and Laetsch, 1969 ; Wheat, 1979 ; Swanson et al , 2008 ). In seedling-grown cacao, the tree typically acquires reproductive ability only after the first crown of plagiotropic branches develops, usually after 2–3 years of growth.…”

“…This form of growth inhibition, known as para-dormancy, operates within the tree and is mediated by hormonal signals and source–sink relationships between organs ( Nozeran et al , 1971 ; Lang et al , 1987 ; Shimizu-Sato and Mori, 2001 ; Ongaro and Leyser, 2007 ; Smith and Samach, 2013 ; Capelli et al , 2021 ). Many studies on the physiology of flowering in cacao have focused on endogenous mechanisms related to fruit set, particularly sexual self-compatibility and floral abscission ( Aneja et al , 1999 ; Hasenstein and Zavada, 2001 ; Almeida and Valle, 2007 ; Swanson et al , 2008 ). However, there are no reports addressing the physiological factors involved in floral induction and floral bud activation in cacao.…”

Flower development schedule andAGAMOUS-like gene expression patterns in two morphs ofNigella damascena(Ranunculaceae) differing in floral architecture

“…(Farbos et al, 1997), Solanum lycopersicum L. (as Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) (Brukhin et al, 2003), Antirrhinum majus L. (Vincent & Coen, 2004) and Theobroma cacao L. (Swanson, Carlson & Guiltinan, 2008)]. In addition, each of these studies used different approaches depending on the type of biological material and on the corresponding experimental constraints (e.g.…”

Phenology of cocoa tree in a tropical moist forest

“…The negative water balance between January/2015 and March/2015 in the study area (Table 1) favored floral induction of cocoa, the water supply from April stimulated flower development up to anthesis, evidenced in a peak flowering at the end of June, possibly a period equal to or greater than that observed by Swanson et al (2008) that have a duration of 30 days from the flower primordium formation up to anthesis.…”

A spatial perspective on flowering in cauliflorous cacao: architecture defines flower cushion location, not its early activity

“…In cacao, subordinate meristems form during primary growth of an axis but can remain suppressed for extended periods ( Greathouse and Laetsch, 1969 ; Wheat, 1979 ; Swanson et al , 2008 ). In seedling-grown cacao, the tree typically acquires reproductive ability only after the first crown of plagiotropic branches develops, usually after 2–3 years of growth.…”

“…This form of growth inhibition, known as para-dormancy, operates within the tree and is mediated by hormonal signals and source–sink relationships between organs ( Nozeran et al , 1971 ; Lang et al , 1987 ; Shimizu-Sato and Mori, 2001 ; Ongaro and Leyser, 2007 ; Smith and Samach, 2013 ; Capelli et al , 2021 ). Many studies on the physiology of flowering in cacao have focused on endogenous mechanisms related to fruit set, particularly sexual self-compatibility and floral abscission ( Aneja et al , 1999 ; Hasenstein and Zavada, 2001 ; Almeida and Valle, 2007 ; Swanson et al , 2008 ). However, there are no reports addressing the physiological factors involved in floral induction and floral bud activation in cacao.…”

Flower development schedule andAGAMOUS-like gene expression patterns in two morphs ofNigella damascena(Ranunculaceae) differing in floral architecture

“…(Farbos et al, 1997), Solanum lycopersicum L. (as Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) (Brukhin et al, 2003), Antirrhinum majus L. (Vincent & Coen, 2004) and Theobroma cacao L. (Swanson, Carlson & Guiltinan, 2008)]. In addition, each of these studies used different approaches depending on the type of biological material and on the corresponding experimental constraints (e.g.…”

Phenology of cocoa tree in a tropical moist forest

“…The negative water balance between January/2015 and March/2015 in the study area (Table 1) favored floral induction of cocoa, the water supply from April stimulated flower development up to anthesis, evidenced in a peak flowering at the end of June, possibly a period equal to or greater than that observed by Swanson et al (2008) that have a duration of 30 days from the flower primordium formation up to anthesis.…”

A spatial perspective on flowering in cauliflorous cacao: architecture defines flower cushion location, not its early activity

“…In cacao, subordinate meristems form during primary growth of an axis but can remain suppressed for extended periods ( Greathouse and Laetsch, 1969 ; Wheat, 1979 ; Swanson et al , 2008 ). In seedling-grown cacao, the tree typically acquires reproductive ability only after the first crown of plagiotropic branches develops, usually after 2–3 years of growth.…”

“…This form of growth inhibition, known as para-dormancy, operates within the tree and is mediated by hormonal signals and source–sink relationships between organs ( Nozeran et al , 1971 ; Lang et al , 1987 ; Shimizu-Sato and Mori, 2001 ; Ongaro and Leyser, 2007 ; Smith and Samach, 2013 ; Capelli et al , 2021 ). Many studies on the physiology of flowering in cacao have focused on endogenous mechanisms related to fruit set, particularly sexual self-compatibility and floral abscission ( Aneja et al , 1999 ; Hasenstein and Zavada, 2001 ; Almeida and Valle, 2007 ; Swanson et al , 2008 ). However, there are no reports addressing the physiological factors involved in floral induction and floral bud activation in cacao.…”

Flower development schedule andAGAMOUS-like gene expression patterns in two morphs ofNigella damascena(Ranunculaceae) differing in floral architecture

“…(Farbos et al, 1997), Solanum lycopersicum L. (as Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) (Brukhin et al, 2003), Antirrhinum majus L. (Vincent & Coen, 2004) and Theobroma cacao L. (Swanson, Carlson & Guiltinan, 2008)]. In addition, each of these studies used different approaches depending on the type of biological material and on the corresponding experimental constraints (e.g.…”

Phenology of cocoa tree in a tropical moist forest

“…The negative water balance between January/2015 and March/2015 in the study area (Table 1) favored floral induction of cocoa, the water supply from April stimulated flower development up to anthesis, evidenced in a peak flowering at the end of June, possibly a period equal to or greater than that observed by Swanson et al (2008) that have a duration of 30 days from the flower primordium formation up to anthesis.…”