Venomics of the beaked sea snake, Hydrophis schistosus: A minimalist toxin arsenal and its cross-neutralization by heterologous antivenoms

Venom and Purified Toxins of the Spectacled Cobra (Naja naja) from Pakistan: Insights into Toxicity and Antivenom Neutralization

“…18 The findings are consistent with previous studies that revealed weak neutralization capacity of antivenoms toward SNTXs. 19,25 The findings also reflect the difficulty in raising immunoglobulins with sufficiently good reactivity toward SNTXs of elapid species. This could be due to the small molecular size and short peptide sequence of SNTX that limit its immunogenicity in host animals.…”

“…32 The IV LD 50 values of the two NTX subtypes are in agreement with findings for other elapid species. 19,25 Indeed, these are highly potent toxins that are responsible for the rapid onset of neuromuscular paralysis and death in most elapid envenomations, via the blockade of postsynaptic nicotinic cholinergic receptors. 33 Neutralization of these toxins is therefore essential to halt or reverse the venom-induced neurotoxicity.…”

“…Mice used in this study were of albino Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) strain (20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25) 18 pipette tips were purchased from Merck Millipore (Billerica, MA). Resource S (1 mL) column was purchased from GE Healthcare (Stockholm, Sweden).…”

“…This was adapted from the venom/toxin-antivenom immunocomplexation approach reported from the same laboratory. 25 Venom or toxin with a challenge dose of 5 × LD 50 in 50 μL saline was preincubated at 37°C for 30 minutes with various concentrations of antivenom to give a total volume of 200 μL. The mixture was then injected intravenously into the mice (N = 4 per dose).…”

Revisiting Notechis scutatus venom: on shotgun proteomics and neutralization by the “bivalent” Sea Snake Antivenom

“…To bridge the knowledge gap, the current study was conducted to investigate the venom proteome of N. scutatus through the use of tryptic digestion, nano-ESI liquid chromatography, tandem mass spectrometry and bioinformatic data mining. The findings were compared to the venom proteome of beaked sea snake (Hydrophis schistosus) [15] and correlated to the in vivo neutralization profile of bioCSL Sea Snake Antivenom (SSAV) against the two venoms. SSAV, indicated for sea snake envenomation, is in fact a bivalent antivenom raised against the venoms of H. schistosus and N. scutatus (purportedly added to enhance the immunogenicity of sea snake venom).…”