“…Two strategies have been reported to augment cytokine secretion by DC, that is, modification of DCs with (1) genes encoding one or multiple cytokines and (2) genes encoding a domain of the transcription factor NF-kB (Lee et al, 2002), resulting in enhanced secretion of multiple proinflammatory cytokines. The impact of cytokines on the induction of antitumor T cell responses has been tested in human and mouse models for interleukin (IL)-12 (helper T type 1 [Th1]-skewing, important for antitumor immune responses) (Nishioka et al, 1999;Ribas et al, 2001Ribas et al, , 2002Vujanovic et al, 2006;Bontkes et al, 2007Bontkes et al, , 2008Tsai et al, 2009), IL-18 (Th1-skewing cytokine) (Tatsumi et al, 2002;Vujanovic et al, 2006;Tong et al, 2008), interferon (IFN)-g (Th1-skewing cytokine) (Xue et al, 2007), IL-2 (T cell proliferation factor) (Ribas et al, 2001), IL-7 (for generation and maintenance of memory T cells) (Westermann et al, 1998;Miller et al, 2000;Ribas et al, 2001;Sharma et al, 2003), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a (proinflammatory cytokine and maturation factor for DCs) (Chen et al, 2002;Ye et al, 2006), IFN-a (stimulation of cross-presentation and antitumor immune response) (Tuting et al, 1998), and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (DC growth and differentiation factor) (Cao et al, 1998;Ojima et al, 2006). Although most studies stated that the produced cytokines positively influenced the induction of an antitumor immune response, there was also a report on an IL-12-induced dose-dependent inhibition of the antitumor response by a yet undefined mechanism in a mouse melanoma model (Ribas et al, 2002).…”