Trinity of Three-Dimensional (3D) Scaffold, Vibration, and 3D Printing on Cell Culture Application: A Systematic Review and Indicating Future Direction

Abstract

Cell culture and cell scaffold engineering have previously developed in two directions. First can be ‘static into dynamic’, with proven effects that dynamic cultures have benefits over static ones. Researches in this direction have used several mechanical means, like external vibrators or shakers, to approximate the dynamic environments in real tissue, though such approaches could only partly address the issue. Second, can be ‘2D into 3D’, that is, artificially created three-dimensional (3D) passive (also called ‘static’) scaffolds have been utilized for 3D cell culture, helping external culturing conditions mimic real tissue 3D environments in a better way as compared with traditional two-dimensional (2D) culturing. In terms of the fabrication of 3D scaffolds, 3D printing (3DP) has witnessed its high popularity in recent years with ascending applicability, and this tendency might continue to grow along with the rapid development in scaffold engineering. In this review, we first introduce cell culturing, then focus 3D cell culture scaffold, vibration stimulation for dynamic culture, and 3DP technologies fabricating 3D scaffold. Potential interconnection of these realms will be analyzed, as well as the limitations of current 3D scaffold and vibration mechanisms. In the recommendation part, further discussion on future scaffold engineering regarding 3D vibratory scaffold will be addressed, indicating 3DP as a positive bridging technology for future scaffold with integrated and localized vibratory functions.

Evaluation of Structural and Mechanical Properties of Porous Artificial Bone Scaffolds Fabricated via Advanced TBA-Based Freeze-Gel Casting Technique

“…Hence, studies on fabrication techniques of scaffolds having proper porous and mechanical properties have been continuously conducted. According to Yuan et al [26], the method of fabricating bone scaffolds is divided into 3D printing and traditional methods. 3D printing techniques are classified with direct methods such as stereolithography (SLA), selective layer sintering (SLS), and ink-jet printing as well as indirect methods, for example, wax printing.…”

“…Indeed, bone scaffolds made with 3D printers have shown low mechanical properties compared with those made with traditional methods. Meanwhile, traditional methods have been developed in a variety of ways, including gas forming, phase separation, and solvent casting [26]. Kim et al created HA scaffolds using the freeze-gel casting method, which combines freeze casting and gel casting [29].…”

Inverse opal substrate-loaded mesenchymal stem cells contribute to decreased myocardial remodeling after transplantation into acute myocardial infarction mice

“…In recent years, increasingly more attention has been paid to three-dimensional cell culture technology. 35,36 At present, there are mainly microcarriers, magnetic suspensions, hanging drop plates, and magnetic three-dimensional bioprinting technologies. However, these culturing technologies still face some problems: 20,37-41 1) poor hydrophilicity and the weak ability of cell attachment; 2) result in aseptic inflammation, while polymer degradation easily leads to a drop in local pH; 3) insufficient mechanical strength; and 4) cytotoxicity exhibited by the residues of organic solvents, which may cause fibrosis and immune response to the surrounding and other tissues.…”

Modifying the Tumour Microenvironment: Challenges and Future Perspectives for Anticancer Plasma Treatments

“…In scaffold-based 3D cultures, the cell behaviour is influenced by the chemical and physical properties of the material used, such as porosity, stiffness, and stability in culture [275]. Scaffolds can be packed with growth factors and short-peptide sequences derived from ECM components that can improve cell adhesion and proliferation [287], as well as to serve of ROS reservoir for the passive delivery of oxidative stress to target cells [288]. In addition, natural tissue scaffolds called "decellularized ECMs" (dECM) can be prepared from native or regenerated tissues in vitro by removing cells with enzymes, detergents, or hypertonic solutions.…”